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+---
+title: "A Bioarchaeological Approach to Everyday Life: Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima"
+authors: ["schrader.md"]
+abstract: This paper offers a bioarchaeological approach to everyday life at Abu Fatim through an examination of squatting facets of the ancient population of Nubia.
+keywords: ["bioarchaeology", "everyday life", "Nubia", "squatting"]
+---
+
+
+# Introduction
+
+Everyday life in Nubia involves activities such as, cooking, cleaning,
+planting seeds, harvesting crops, watching a football match, chatting
+with friends, monitoring children, eating delicious foods, and drinking
+tea. If we conjure up images of these quotidian actions from personal
+experiences, many of these activities are performed in a squatting
+position (Fig. 1). When a chair or mat is not available, modern Nubians
+will frequently assume a squatting position, with hips, knees, and
+ankles bent, to create temporary respite. As many of us that are not
+commonly in this position can attest to, it requires a degree of
+flexibility that no doubt comes with years of habituation and practice.
+
+Using bioarchaeological methods, we are able to assess whether or not
+ancient populations also frequently assumed a squatting position. The
+lower leg bone (tibia) has been shown to possess accessory articulating
+facets when the ankle joint is regularly hyperdorsiflexed (i.e., when
+toes are drawn towards shins; Fig. 1). There have been a few
+bioarchaeological publications using this approach, however, they are
+mainly limited to case studies.[^1] I argue that the squatting facets
+method has broader theoretical importance as it can be used as an
+indicator of everyday life in the *longue durée*. We have a window into
+how people spent their days, inside and outside of the home, and
+potentially a temporal line of continuity between ancient and modern
+populations.
+
+![Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975).](../static/images/schrader/Fig1.jpg "Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975).")
+
+**~~Figure 1. Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975)[^2]~~**
+
+
+# Bioarchaeology of the Everyday
+
+Everyday life is vitally important to the development of individual and
+communal identities as well as to agentive action and social change.
+While certain major life events (e.g., wedding, funeral, war, etc.) may
+create a more marked memory, the majority of lived experiences are those
+that we might consider mundane. It is these minutiae that scholars of
+practice theory suggest are the most crucial---these everyday actions
+can be minor acts of resistance to an overarching social system that,
+with enough support and continuity, can go on to change entire social
+structures.[^3] In this way, these everyday lives of everyday people are
+anything but mundane, but rather consist of a series of critical ways of
+operating.[^4]
+
+Archaeologists have long argued that understanding everyday life in the
+past is essential. Moving away from temples and tombs, archaeologists
+became interested in how everyday people lived in their day-to-day
+milieu. Additionally, archaeology is ideally situated to study this
+everyday past given the material record that everyday life creates.
+Interpretations of everyday practice have been achieved through studies
+of midden deposits, architecture, debitage, landscape modification, and
+ceramics. Footprints at the ancient Mayan site of Chan Nòohol were even
+used to recreate movements and personal interactions within this
+community.[^5] The archaeology of everyday life in ancient Nubia has
+been examined through several lenses, including, but not limited to
+architecture and use of space, foodways, and identity expression.[^6]
+
+Skeletal data has the ability to provide unique insight into everyday
+life in the ancient world. Contrary to popular belief, bones are not as
+unmalleable as we might assume. Rather, the skeletal frame adapts
+throughout one's life, slowly remodeling on a cellular level. It is
+estimated that it takes approximately 10 years for the skeleton to
+completely remodel.[^7] This process also facilitates a record of life
+events, embodied in the bones themselves. This is frequently referred to
+as embodiment theory in bioarchaeology and speaks to the biosocial
+nature of bioarchaeologyn[^8] The discipline goes beyond looking at
+broken bones or diseases to assessing lived experience in the ancient
+past, how it changed during periods of political, economic, and social
+upheaval, and how these data can be used to inform our understanding of
+our modern world.
+
+In previous work I have used this embodiment framework to examine
+everyday life in ancient Nubia.[^9] By examining skeletal indicators of
+activity (osteoarthritis and muscle attachment sites) as well as
+biomolecular approaches to diet (carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis),
+I was able to document how everyday life changed for Nubians living
+under colonial New Kingdom rule as well as in a post-colonial and
+Napatan landscape. By integrating a theoretical framework grounded in
+practice theory into bioarchaeological data, I was able to interpret
+relatively subtle diachronic changes in activity and diet as acts of
+agency and resistance. For example, bioarchaeological activity markers
+indicate that the post-colonial Third-Intermediate and Napatan period
+population may have indeed been engaging in more physically strenuous
+everyday movements than New Kingdom colonial Egypto-Nubian populations
+(at the site of Tombos, Third Cataract). However, this need not be
+interpreted as something negative, but rather can be framed as a newly
+independent community utilizing local raw materials (e.g., quarrying,
+mining) and building new communities and connections (e.g., construction
+efforts; new trading partners and political allies).[^10]
+
+# Squatting Facets
+
+As discussed above, squatting facets are an articulation between the
+shin bone (distal tibia) and foot (talus) that are thought to be
+acquired in life. When an individual squats down for extended periods of
+time, the two bones begin to touch, where in a normal anatomical
+position, they would not. This creates a new joint, or articulation, and
+is an example of how the skeleton can adapt during life (Fig. 2). Note
+that changes can also be seen on the femur, patella, talus, and
+metatarsals, however, most commonly the distal tibia is affected and
+studied.[^11]
+
+![Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959).](../static/images/schrader/Fig2.jpg "Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959).")
+
+**~~Figure 2. Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959)[^12]~~**
+
+
+Squatting facets have been studied for decades both from a clinical and
+bioarchaeological perspective. Clinicians have examined the prevalence
+of squatting facets in modern populations as well as associated the
+presence of squatting facets with the potential for subsequent
+injury.[^13] Several papers have reported the presence of squatting
+facets both in adults as well as fetuses. The interest in fetal
+squatting facets stems from the question, are squatting facets the
+product of activity, acquired through one's life? In which case we would
+expect to find them only on adult remains. Or are squatting facets
+inherited? In which case we would find them on both adults and fetuses.
+Furthermore, does the frequency of squatting facets vary across
+genetically heterogeneous populations? Singh, for example, compares
+adult and fetal squatting facets prevalence in an Indian population and
+notes that, while adults do have higher frequencies, fetuses do indeed
+possess squatting facets.[^14] Singh does state that the presence of
+squatting facets in fetuses is low in this sample, it is also variable
+between other samples published in previous works (22.6% Indian; 23%
+European; 3.1% Japanese). Barnett, however, provides an explanation for
+these findings. Barnett argues that these traits can indeed be
+inherited, however, if the activities that maintain this articulation
+(i.e., squatting) are not maintained throughout the lifecourse, they
+will become obliterated as bone turnover occurs.[^15] While this
+explanation does explain the presence of squatting facets on both fetal
+and adult remains, the matter is still a topic of debate today.
+
+Bioarchaeological studies have contributed to this research by looking
+at changes in squatting facet frequency through time as well as sexual
+division of labor in the past. Squatting facets have been found in early
+hominin remains, including Neanderthals.[^16] Broadly speaking, we see a
+decrease in squatting facets through time, and a notable decrease during
+the medieval period. Boule examined 543 tibiae from French and American
+archaeological sites (1st-20th centuries CE), and found that prior to
+the Middle Ages, squatting was quite common; however, with the dawn of
+the Middle Ages, there was a steady decrease in the frequency of
+squatting facets.[^17] Similarly, Dlamini and Morris found that
+squatting facets were common in Late Stone Age (1st millennium BCE)
+South Africa, but almost nonexistent in comparative modern skeletal and
+cadaver samples.[^18] Molleson reports high incidence of squatting
+facets at Abu Hureyra, Syria (Mesolithic/Neolithic) and Çatalhöyük,
+Turkey (Neolithic) and suggests that a saddle quern or mortar were used
+to process the grains that were being harvested.[^19] Molleson also
+suggests the potential sexual division of labor, indicating that women
+and girls may have been responsible for preparing foodstuffs, whereas
+men and boys, who exhibited higher rates of squatting facets, were
+likely working with their hands while squatting, possibly making baskets
+and preparing cord.[^20]
+
+4.  Squatting Facets in Nubia
+
+To my knowledge squatting facets have not been systematically studied in
+Nubian remains. Here I present squatting facet data from the Kerma, or
+Kushite, period site of Abu Fatima (*ca*. 2500-1500 BCE). Abu Fatima is
+located near the Third Cataract of the Nile near Tombos and modern day
+Kerma (Fig. 3) and is currently being excavated by Dr. Stuart Tyson
+Smith (University California, Santa Barbara) and myself. Given its
+location and size, it has been proposed that Abu Fatima was a suburban
+community, which would have been a long walk (approximately 10km) to the
+ancient capital city Kerma.[^21] The community is thought to have
+participated in agricultural and animal husbandry practices, but also
+may have produced pottery, constructed homes, and manufactured other
+trade goods.
+
+![Map of Abu Fatima.](../static/images/schrader/Fig3.jpg "Map of Abu Fatima.")
+
+**~~Figure 3. Map of Abu Fatima.~~**
+
+
+Analysis of squatting facets was conducted according to presence or
+absence of the trait.[^22] All available adult skeletons from Abu Fatima
+were analyzed. In some cases, no tibiae were preserved, for which
+squatting facets could not be assessed. In other instances, only one
+tibia (left or right) was preserved and, thus, only one data point was
+collected for said individual(s). Analysis of sex and age-at-death were
+performed according to accepted bioarchaeological standards.[^23]
+
+The ethics of handling and studying human skeletal remains were taken
+into considering at all stages of this research, including excavation,
+curation, and analysis.[^24] The project worked closely with the
+National Corporation of Antiquities and Museums (NCAM) of Sudan as well
+as the local community of Abu Fatima, who were both supportive of this
+research. This analysis was non-destructive, so the remains were
+macroscopically analyzed and then returned to conservator boxes in a
+temperature- and humidity-controlled environment at the Faculty of
+Archaeology, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
+
+5.  Did Ancient Nubians Squat?
+
+A total of 21 individuals from the Abu Fatima collection had at least
+one preserved distal tibia (Table 1). Of these, only one individual did
+not possess squatting facets (Burial 4E1). The vast majority of the Abu
+Fatima population (20/21, or 95%) did have the very clear presence of
+squatting facets. This is markedly higher than many previously published
+comparative studies (Table 2). Note that this list is limited to those
+studies that focus on tibial squatting facets, as opposed to femoral,
+patellar, tarsal, or metatarsal facets.
+
+Table 1. Demographic Distribution of Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  ID \#   Squatting               Sex              Age-at-Death    Locality
+          Facets                                                   
+  ------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- --------------- ------------
+          Left        Right                                        
+
+  1A1     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  1B1     ✓           ✓           Female           50+             Local
+
+  1E1     ✓           ✓           Female           18-34           Local
+
+  1F1     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  1F2     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  2A1     ✓           ✓           Female           35-49           Non-Local
+
+  2A2     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  2B1     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  2C1     ✓           ✓           Male             18-34           Non-Local
+
+  2D1     ✓           ✓           Female           50+             Local
+
+  2F1     n/o         ✓           Female           35-49           Local
+
+  3A1     n/o         ✓           Male             35-49           Local
+
+  4A1     ✓           ✓           Male             18-34           Local
+
+  4B2     n/o         ✓           Female           35-49           Unknown
+
+  4C1     ✓           n/o         Female           50+             Local
+
+  4D1     n/o         ✓           Female           35-49           Non-Local
+
+  4E1                             Probable Male    35-49           Local
+
+  5B1     ✓           ✓           Female           18-34           Local
+
+  8A2     ✓           ✓           Female           50+             Non-local
+
+  8B1     ✓           ✓           Female           35-49           Local
+
+  9A1     ✓           ✓           Male             35-49           Non-Local
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+n/o=Not observable; Locality assessed via strontium isotope analysis
+(see Schrader et al. 2019 for additional information)
+
+Table 2. Frequency of Squatting Facets in Other Populations
+
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Population                  Squatting     Sample   Citation
+                              Facet         Size     
+                              Presence               
+  --------------------------- ------------- -------- ----------------------
+  Abu Fatima                  95%           21       Present study
+
+  Ancient Egypt               96%           300      Satinoff, 1972[^25]
+
+  Ancient Egypt               33%           3        Thomson et al.,
+                                                     1889[^26]
+
+  Byzantine 13^th^ century    48%           100      Ari et al., 2003[^27]
+  BCE                                                
+
+  Late Stone Age (1^st^       50%           56       Dlamini and Morris,
+  millennium BCE), South                             2005[^28]
+  Africa                                             
+
+  Early farming (5^th^-19^th^ 77%           17       Dlamini and Morris,
+  centuries CE), South Africa                        2005[^29]
+
+  18th century Cape Town    5%            21       Dlamini and Morris,
+                                                     2005[^30]
+
+  20th century Cape Town    0%            29       Dlamini and Morris,
+  cadavers                                           2005[^31]
+
+  South African (Oxford/Royal 27%           11       Thomson, 1889[^32]
+  College of Surgeons'                               
+  Museum)                                            
+
+  Neanderthals (Europe, Near  91%           11       Trinkaus, 1975[^33]
+  East)                                              
+
+  European (Oxford/Royal      13%           40       Thomson, 1889[^34]
+  College of Surgeons'                               
+  Museum)                                            
+
+  Scottish (Anatomical        17%           118      Wood, 1920[^35]
+  Department, University of                          
+  Edinburgh)                                         
+
+  Asian (Oxford/Royal College 48%           23       Thomson, 1889[^36]
+  of Surgeons' Museum)                               
+
+  Native American             37%           19       Thomson, 1889[^37]
+  (Oxford/Royal College of                           
+  Surgeons' Museum)                                  
+
+  Polynesia (Oxford/Royal     75%           4        Thomson, 1889[^38]
+  College of Surgeons'                               
+  Museum)                                            
+
+  Melanesia (Oxford/Royal     71%           38       Thomson, 1889[^39]
+  College of Surgeons'                               
+  Museum)                                            
+
+  Australian (Oxford/Royal    79%           14       Thomson, 1889[^40]
+  College of Surgeons'                               
+  Museum)                                            
+
+  Australian (Collection of   81%           236      Wood, 1920[^41]
+  Anatomical Museum of the                           
+  University of Edinburgh)                           
+
+  Indian (20^th^ century)     77%           292      Singh, 1959[^42]
+  cadavers and "museum                               
+  specimens"                                         
+
+  Panjabi, Indian             87%           52       Charles, 1893 [^43]
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+One interpretation of these data is that the people of ancient Kush,
+just like modern Nubians, spent much of their everyday life in a
+squatting position. This may have involved both occupational as well as
+leisure activities. It is also interesting that both males and females
+exhibit squatting facets, suggesting both sexes were participating in
+this position. All adult age categories, young, middle, and old adults,
+also possess evidence for squatting. This suggests that the activity was
+continued throughout life; if, for example, an individual was a squatter
+in childhood or young adulthood but then stopped, the facet would be
+obliterated by bone remodeling as they aged. In short, it would appear
+that a large portion of the Abu Fatima community, of both sexes and all
+age groups, were spending much of their everyday life in a squatting
+position.
+
+It is also interesting to note that previous bioarchaeological research
+of the Abu Fatima collection indicates that approximately 25% of this
+population were of non-local origin, meaning they migrated from
+someplace else and eventually died and were buried at Abu Fatima.[^44]
+This was assessed via strontium isotope analysis, which compares
+strontium values from dental enamel (produced during childhood) to local
+geology; if these values are similar, we can deduce that the individual
+was local to the region, however, if these values differ, it is possible
+that they migrated into this community. Interestingly, all non-local
+individuals also possessed squatting facets. This suggests that the
+patterns exhibited here at Abu Fatima, may not be limited to just this
+community, but rather may a more pan-Nubian pattern. Using strontium
+isotope analysis, it is impossible to pinpoint the point of origin for
+an individual, so we cannot say where these non-locals came from. But it
+does appear that throughout their life they were habitually
+participating in a squatting behavior.
+
+The one individual in the Abu Fatima collection that did not possess
+squatting facets (4E1) is a bit of an oddity. This was a probable male,
+dating to the Ancient Kerma period (2,500-2,050 BCE), who likely died
+between 35-50. The grave was looted in antiquity and was quite
+disturbed, with no skeletal elements remained *in situ*. Despite this,
+there is evidence to suggest that this individual may have been
+originally been buried with numerous and varied grave goods. Three
+lithic blades forming a Nubian-style arrowhead, rawhide sandals, faience
+beads, and intricate leatherwork and basketry were all found in this
+burial pit. Although it is difficult to say with any certainty given the
+looting, it is possible this grave could have belonged to an elite
+individual or an individual of a special class (e.g., occupation). For
+example, if individual 4E1 were elite, perhaps they didn't squat, but
+rather sat in chairs. If they were not participating in common tasks
+because of their status, they could have found other positions of
+relaxation. Another possible explanation is that this person had an
+occupation (e.g., warrior), or daily life, that did not require
+squatting. It could also be as simple as this individual did not enjoy
+squatting or perhaps an injury, unidentifiable in the skeletal remains,
+prevented them from assuming this position.
+
+If we turn to archaeological evidence for squatting in the Nile Valley,
+there are a few examples. It is interesting to note that most of these
+samples are associated with the non-elite, working class. For example,
+there is an Old Kingdom (probably 6th Dynasty, *ca* 2,345-2,125 BCE)
+pottery statuette of a squatting man who appears to be naked and
+emaciated (Fig. 4). There is a similar figure, on display at the
+Egyptian Museum in Cairo, of an emaciated old squatting man grasping an
+ivory staff. There are also multiple examples of figures grinding grain,
+like this one, a statuette from the 5th Dynasty (*ca.* 2,465-2,323
+BCE; Giza; Fig. 5). Figures such as these exhibit scenes from everyday
+life and were thought to provide resources for deceased in the
+afterlife. They can also provide some insight into the types of
+activities Nile Valley inhabitants may have done while in a squatting
+position.
+
+In other squatting facet studies, bioarchaeologists have concluded that
+individuals with squatting facets may have regularly participated in
+grinding, basketmaking, spinning, weaving, baking, milking animals,
+preparing dung, knitting rugs, sitting around a fire, and working in the
+fields.[^45] There is also some evidence within Egypt to suggest that
+scribes may have frequently taken a squatting position.[^46]
+Archaeological evidence in Nubia indicates that percussion instruments
+were used in a squatting position.[^47] Lastly, there are many
+iconographic examples from Ancient Egypt of women given birth in a
+squatting position.[^48] However, for the skeleton to modify it would
+need to be a highly repetitive behavior. It's certainly possible that
+childbirth contributed to the development of squatting facets, it was
+probably in combination with other activities.
+
+![Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).](../static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg "Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).")
+
+**~~Figure 4. Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).~~**
+
+
+![Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).](../static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg "Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).")
+
+**~~Figure 5. Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).~~**
+
+
+
+Satinoff conducted a study of squatting facets in an Egyptian
+sample.[^49] The origins of the skeletal material remain unclear as the
+only documentation provided is that they were housed at the Institute of
+Anthropology at the University of Turin; however, no chronological or
+spatial information was provided. Satinoff found that of the 300 male
+and female remains analyzed 96% did in fact have squatting facets. This
+is very much congruent with the findings presented here from Abu Fatima.
+It does beg the question about genetic predisposition to said facets,
+given the relatively genetic homogeneity between Egyptian and Nubians.
+Skeletal analysis of additional samples, with well-documented
+chronologies and cemetery locations, would be useful to better
+understand if the majority of Egyptians and Nubians had squatting
+facets, or if the similar values between Abu Fatima and the results
+presented by Satinoff are coincidence. Additionally, additional skeletal
+analysis of non-adult remains, particularly neonates and infants, could
+be used to address the genetic predisposition theory.
+
+6.  Conclusions
+
+These data provide a novel perspective on everyday life in ancient
+Nubia. Up until now, the Nubian quotidian had been examined via built
+space, everyday life objects, refuse, as well as skeletal indicators of
+physically strenuous activity and dietary practices. This study presents
+a unique line of embodied continuity between the ancient Kushites,
+inhabiting the Third Cataract region *ca*. 4,000 years ago and the
+Nubians that inhabit the region today. While it is impossible to specify
+what activities these individuals were engaging while assuming the
+squatting posture, these data suggest that both men and women were
+regularly squatting at Abu Fatima during the Kushite period. As Abu
+Fatima is considered a suburban space, these interpretations are further
+evidence for how the ordinary, non-elite population would have lived
+their daily lives, both inside and outside of the home. This may have
+involved squatting around a fire, preparing food (e.g., grinding,
+cooking), playing musical instruments, weaving, flint-knapping, or just
+chatting with friends.
+
+7.  Acknowledgements
+
+My thoughts are with the people of Sudan as the country, at the time of
+writing, is in the midst of a horrific war. This publication is part of
+the project Embodied Inequality (VI.Vidi.201.153) of the Research
+Programme VIDI which is financed by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).
+
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+
+[^1]: Endnotes
+
+    Ari, Oygucu, and Sendemir, "The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of
+    Byzantine (13th) Skeletons"; Boulle, "Osteological Features
+    Associatd with Ankle Hyperdorsiflexion"; Dlamini and Morris, "An
+    Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age
+    Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the
+    Mesolithic"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at
+    the Origins of Labour"; Robb, "Skeletal Signs of Activity in the
+    Italian Metal Ages";
+    Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals."
+
+[^2]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals," p. 330.
+
+[^3]: Bourdieu, *Outline of the Theory of Practice*; Giddens, *The
+    Constitution of Society*;
+    Schatzki, "Materiality and Social Life."
+
+[^4]: de Certeau, *The Practice of Everyday Life*.
+
+[^5]: Robin, *Everyday Life Matters: Maya Farmers at Chan*.
+
+[^6]: Agha, "Nubia Still Exists";
+    Budka and Doyen, "Life in New Kindom Towns in Upper Nubia"; Haaland, "Changing
+    Food Ways as Indicators of Emerging Complexity in Sudanese Nubia";
+    Smith, "Pharoahs, Feasts, and Foreigners"; Smith, *Wretched Kush*; Smith,
+    "A Potter's Wheelhead from Askut and the Organization of the
+    Egyptian Ceramic Industry in Nubia"; Smith, "The Nubian Experience
+    of Egyptian Domination during the New Kingdom"; van Peltt, "Revising
+    Egypto-Nubian Relations in New Kingdom Lower Nubia"; Spencer, Stevens, and
+    Binder, *Nubia in the New Kingdom*.
+
+[^7]: Hedges et al., "Collagen Turnover in the Adult Femoral Mid-Shaft."
+
+[^8]: Schrader and Torres-Rouff, "Embodying Bioarchaeology."
+
+[^9]: Schrader, *Activity, Diet and Social Practice*.
+
+[^10]: Schrader and Buzon, "Everyday Life after Collapse."
+
+[^11]: Boulle, "Osteological Features Associatd with Ankle
+    Hyperdorsiflexion"; Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the Mesolithic."
+
+[^12]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians," p.
+    545
+
+[^13]: Massada, "Ankle Overuse Injuries in Soccer Players."
+
+[^14]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indian
+    Foetuses."
+
+[^15]: Barnett, "Squatting Facets on the European Talus."
+
+[^16]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals."
+
+[^17]: Boulle, "Evolution of Two Human Skeletal Markers of the Squatting
+    Positoin."
+
+[^18]: Dlamini and Morris, "An Investigation of the Frequency of
+    Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa."
+
+[^19]: Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the Mesolithic."
+
+[^20]: Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins of Labour."
+
+[^21]: Schrader and Smith, "Socializing Violence."
+
+[^22]: Mann, Hunt, and Lozanoff, *Photographic Regional Atlas of
+    Non-Metric Traits and Anatomical Variants in the Human Skeleton*.
+
+[^23]: Buikstra and Ubelaker, *Standards for Data Collection from Human
+    Skeletal Remains*.
+
+[^24]: Schrader et al., "Decolonizing Bioarchaeology in Sudan."
+
+[^25]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of Teh Talus and Tibia
+    in Ancient Egyptians."
+
+[^26]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
+    the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
+    Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
+
+[^27]: Ari, Oygucu, and Sendemir, "The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of
+    Byzantine (13th) Skeletons."
+
+[^28]: Dlamini and Morris, "An Investigation of the Frequency of
+    Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa."
+
+[^29]: Dlamini and Morris.
+
+[^30]: Ibid.
+
+[^31]: Ibid.
+
+[^32]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
+    the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
+    Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
+
+[^33]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals."
+
+[^34]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
+    the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
+    Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
+
+[^35]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine."
+
+[^36]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
+    the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
+    Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
+
+[^37]: Ibid.
+
+[^38]: Ibid.
+
+[^39]: Ibid.
+
+[^40]: Ibid.
+
+[^41]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine."
+
+[^42]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians."
+
+[^43]: Charles, "The Influence of Function, as Exemplified in the
+    Morphology of the Lower Extremity of the Panjabi."
+
+[^44]: Schrader et al., "Intraregional 87Sr/86Sr Variation in Nubia."
+
+[^45]: Baykara et al., "Squatting Facet"; Dlamini and Morris, "An
+    Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age
+    Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins
+    of Labour."
+
+[^46]: Casson, *Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt*.
+
+[^47]: Kleinitz, "Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley."
+
+[^48]: Haimov-Kochman, Sciaky-Tamir, and Hurwitz, "Reproduction Concepts
+    and Practices in Ancient Egypt Mirrored by Modern Medicine."
+
+[^49]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia
+    in Ancient Egyptians."

content/author/schrader.md

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+---
+title: Sarah Schrader
+affiliation: Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University
+---
+
+# Biography
+
+Sarah Schrader is a bioarchaeologist.

content/issue/dotawo9.md

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 ---
 title: "Dotawo 9: Nubian Homescapes from Antiquity to the Present"
 editors: ["annaboozer.md", "annejennings.md"]
-has_articles: ["hamdeen.md", "yvanez.md", "fulcher.md", "sadeq.md", "asmaataha.md", "tsakoswelsby.md"]
+has_articles: ["boozerintro.md", "hamdeen.md", "yvanez.md", "fulcher.md", "sadeq.md", "asmaataha.md", "tsakoswelsby.md"]
 keywords: ["homescape", "home", "homeland", "household", "homelife", "diaspora", "displacement", "tahgeer" ,"Nubia", "Nubian", "Aswan High Dam Campaign", "war", "genocide", "resettlement", "Kom Ombo", "stereotype", "longue durée"]
 ---