diff --git a/content/article/schrader.md b/content/article/schrader.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6614bbf --- /dev/null +++ b/content/article/schrader.md @@ -0,0 +1,796 @@ +--- +title: "A Bioarchaeological Approach to Everyday Life: Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima" +authors: ["schrader.md"] +abstract: This paper offers a bioarchaeological approach to everyday life at Abu Fatim through an examination of squatting facets of the ancient population of Nubia. +keywords: ["bioarchaeology", "everyday life", "Nubia", "squatting"] +--- + + +# Introduction + +Everyday life in Nubia involves activities such as, cooking, cleaning, +planting seeds, harvesting crops, watching a football match, chatting +with friends, monitoring children, eating delicious foods, and drinking +tea. If we conjure up images of these quotidian actions from personal +experiences, many of these activities are performed in a squatting +position (Fig. 1). When a chair or mat is not available, modern Nubians +will frequently assume a squatting position, with hips, knees, and +ankles bent, to create temporary respite. As many of us that are not +commonly in this position can attest to, it requires a degree of +flexibility that no doubt comes with years of habituation and practice. + +Using bioarchaeological methods, we are able to assess whether or not +ancient populations also frequently assumed a squatting position. The +lower leg bone (tibia) has been shown to possess accessory articulating +facets when the ankle joint is regularly hyperdorsiflexed (i.e., when +toes are drawn towards shins; Fig. 1). There have been a few +bioarchaeological publications using this approach, however, they are +mainly limited to case studies.[^1] I argue that the squatting facets +method has broader theoretical importance as it can be used as an +indicator of everyday life in the *longue durée*. We have a window into +how people spent their days, inside and outside of the home, and +potentially a temporal line of continuity between ancient and modern +populations. + +![Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975).](../static/images/schrader/Fig1.jpg "Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975).") + +**~~Figure 1. Squatting Position and Skeletal Consequences of Habitual Squatting (modified from Trinkaus 1975)[^2]~~** + + +# Bioarchaeology of the Everyday + +Everyday life is vitally important to the development of individual and +communal identities as well as to agentive action and social change. +While certain major life events (e.g., wedding, funeral, war, etc.) may +create a more marked memory, the majority of lived experiences are those +that we might consider mundane. It is these minutiae that scholars of +practice theory suggest are the most crucial---these everyday actions +can be minor acts of resistance to an overarching social system that, +with enough support and continuity, can go on to change entire social +structures.[^3] In this way, these everyday lives of everyday people are +anything but mundane, but rather consist of a series of critical ways of +operating.[^4] + +Archaeologists have long argued that understanding everyday life in the +past is essential. Moving away from temples and tombs, archaeologists +became interested in how everyday people lived in their day-to-day +milieu. Additionally, archaeology is ideally situated to study this +everyday past given the material record that everyday life creates. +Interpretations of everyday practice have been achieved through studies +of midden deposits, architecture, debitage, landscape modification, and +ceramics. Footprints at the ancient Mayan site of Chan Nòohol were even +used to recreate movements and personal interactions within this +community.[^5] The archaeology of everyday life in ancient Nubia has +been examined through several lenses, including, but not limited to +architecture and use of space, foodways, and identity expression.[^6] + +Skeletal data has the ability to provide unique insight into everyday +life in the ancient world. Contrary to popular belief, bones are not as +unmalleable as we might assume. Rather, the skeletal frame adapts +throughout one's life, slowly remodeling on a cellular level. It is +estimated that it takes approximately 10 years for the skeleton to +completely remodel.[^7] This process also facilitates a record of life +events, embodied in the bones themselves. This is frequently referred to +as embodiment theory in bioarchaeology and speaks to the biosocial +nature of bioarchaeologyn[^8] The discipline goes beyond looking at +broken bones or diseases to assessing lived experience in the ancient +past, how it changed during periods of political, economic, and social +upheaval, and how these data can be used to inform our understanding of +our modern world. + +In previous work I have used this embodiment framework to examine +everyday life in ancient Nubia.[^9] By examining skeletal indicators of +activity (osteoarthritis and muscle attachment sites) as well as +biomolecular approaches to diet (carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis), +I was able to document how everyday life changed for Nubians living +under colonial New Kingdom rule as well as in a post-colonial and +Napatan landscape. By integrating a theoretical framework grounded in +practice theory into bioarchaeological data, I was able to interpret +relatively subtle diachronic changes in activity and diet as acts of +agency and resistance. For example, bioarchaeological activity markers +indicate that the post-colonial Third-Intermediate and Napatan period +population may have indeed been engaging in more physically strenuous +everyday movements than New Kingdom colonial Egypto-Nubian populations +(at the site of Tombos, Third Cataract). However, this need not be +interpreted as something negative, but rather can be framed as a newly +independent community utilizing local raw materials (e.g., quarrying, +mining) and building new communities and connections (e.g., construction +efforts; new trading partners and political allies).[^10] + +# Squatting Facets + +As discussed above, squatting facets are an articulation between the +shin bone (distal tibia) and foot (talus) that are thought to be +acquired in life. When an individual squats down for extended periods of +time, the two bones begin to touch, where in a normal anatomical +position, they would not. This creates a new joint, or articulation, and +is an example of how the skeleton can adapt during life (Fig. 2). Note +that changes can also be seen on the femur, patella, talus, and +metatarsals, however, most commonly the distal tibia is affected and +studied.[^11] + +![Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959).](../static/images/schrader/Fig2.jpg "Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959).") + +**~~Figure 2. Images of Different Types of Squatting Facets on Distal Tibiae (modified from Singh 1959)[^12]~~** + + +Squatting facets have been studied for decades both from a clinical and +bioarchaeological perspective. Clinicians have examined the prevalence +of squatting facets in modern populations as well as associated the +presence of squatting facets with the potential for subsequent +injury.[^13] Several papers have reported the presence of squatting +facets both in adults as well as fetuses. The interest in fetal +squatting facets stems from the question, are squatting facets the +product of activity, acquired through one's life? In which case we would +expect to find them only on adult remains. Or are squatting facets +inherited? In which case we would find them on both adults and fetuses. +Furthermore, does the frequency of squatting facets vary across +genetically heterogeneous populations? Singh, for example, compares +adult and fetal squatting facets prevalence in an Indian population and +notes that, while adults do have higher frequencies, fetuses do indeed +possess squatting facets.[^14] Singh does state that the presence of +squatting facets in fetuses is low in this sample, it is also variable +between other samples published in previous works (22.6% Indian; 23% +European; 3.1% Japanese). Barnett, however, provides an explanation for +these findings. Barnett argues that these traits can indeed be +inherited, however, if the activities that maintain this articulation +(i.e., squatting) are not maintained throughout the lifecourse, they +will become obliterated as bone turnover occurs.[^15] While this +explanation does explain the presence of squatting facets on both fetal +and adult remains, the matter is still a topic of debate today. + +Bioarchaeological studies have contributed to this research by looking +at changes in squatting facet frequency through time as well as sexual +division of labor in the past. Squatting facets have been found in early +hominin remains, including Neanderthals.[^16] Broadly speaking, we see a +decrease in squatting facets through time, and a notable decrease during +the medieval period. Boule examined 543 tibiae from French and American +archaeological sites (1st-20th centuries CE), and found that prior to +the Middle Ages, squatting was quite common; however, with the dawn of +the Middle Ages, there was a steady decrease in the frequency of +squatting facets.[^17] Similarly, Dlamini and Morris found that +squatting facets were common in Late Stone Age (1st millennium BCE) +South Africa, but almost nonexistent in comparative modern skeletal and +cadaver samples.[^18] Molleson reports high incidence of squatting +facets at Abu Hureyra, Syria (Mesolithic/Neolithic) and Çatalhöyük, +Turkey (Neolithic) and suggests that a saddle quern or mortar were used +to process the grains that were being harvested.[^19] Molleson also +suggests the potential sexual division of labor, indicating that women +and girls may have been responsible for preparing foodstuffs, whereas +men and boys, who exhibited higher rates of squatting facets, were +likely working with their hands while squatting, possibly making baskets +and preparing cord.[^20] + +4. Squatting Facets in Nubia + +To my knowledge squatting facets have not been systematically studied in +Nubian remains. Here I present squatting facet data from the Kerma, or +Kushite, period site of Abu Fatima (*ca*. 2500-1500 BCE). Abu Fatima is +located near the Third Cataract of the Nile near Tombos and modern day +Kerma (Fig. 3) and is currently being excavated by Dr. Stuart Tyson +Smith (University California, Santa Barbara) and myself. Given its +location and size, it has been proposed that Abu Fatima was a suburban +community, which would have been a long walk (approximately 10km) to the +ancient capital city Kerma.[^21] The community is thought to have +participated in agricultural and animal husbandry practices, but also +may have produced pottery, constructed homes, and manufactured other +trade goods. + +![Map of Abu Fatima.](../static/images/schrader/Fig3.jpg "Map of Abu Fatima.") + +**~~Figure 3. Map of Abu Fatima.~~** + + +Analysis of squatting facets was conducted according to presence or +absence of the trait.[^22] All available adult skeletons from Abu Fatima +were analyzed. In some cases, no tibiae were preserved, for which +squatting facets could not be assessed. In other instances, only one +tibia (left or right) was preserved and, thus, only one data point was +collected for said individual(s). Analysis of sex and age-at-death were +performed according to accepted bioarchaeological standards.[^23] + +The ethics of handling and studying human skeletal remains were taken +into considering at all stages of this research, including excavation, +curation, and analysis.[^24] The project worked closely with the +National Corporation of Antiquities and Museums (NCAM) of Sudan as well +as the local community of Abu Fatima, who were both supportive of this +research. This analysis was non-destructive, so the remains were +macroscopically analyzed and then returned to conservator boxes in a +temperature- and humidity-controlled environment at the Faculty of +Archaeology, Leiden University, The Netherlands. + +5. Did Ancient Nubians Squat? + +A total of 21 individuals from the Abu Fatima collection had at least +one preserved distal tibia (Table 1). Of these, only one individual did +not possess squatting facets (Burial 4E1). The vast majority of the Abu +Fatima population (20/21, or 95%) did have the very clear presence of +squatting facets. This is markedly higher than many previously published +comparative studies (Table 2). Note that this list is limited to those +studies that focus on tibial squatting facets, as opposed to femoral, +patellar, tarsal, or metatarsal facets. + +Table 1. Demographic Distribution of Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + ID \# Squatting Sex Age-at-Death Locality + Facets + ------- ----------- ----------- ---------------- --------------- ------------ + Left Right + + 1A1 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 1B1 ✓ ✓ Female 50+ Local + + 1E1 ✓ ✓ Female 18-34 Local + + 1F1 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 1F2 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 2A1 ✓ ✓ Female 35-49 Non-Local + + 2A2 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 2B1 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 2C1 ✓ ✓ Male 18-34 Non-Local + + 2D1 ✓ ✓ Female 50+ Local + + 2F1 n/o ✓ Female 35-49 Local + + 3A1 n/o ✓ Male 35-49 Local + + 4A1 ✓ ✓ Male 18-34 Local + + 4B2 n/o ✓ Female 35-49 Unknown + + 4C1 ✓ n/o Female 50+ Local + + 4D1 n/o ✓ Female 35-49 Non-Local + + 4E1 Probable Male 35-49 Local + + 5B1 ✓ ✓ Female 18-34 Local + + 8A2 ✓ ✓ Female 50+ Non-local + + 8B1 ✓ ✓ Female 35-49 Local + + 9A1 ✓ ✓ Male 35-49 Non-Local + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +n/o=Not observable; Locality assessed via strontium isotope analysis +(see Schrader et al. 2019 for additional information) + +Table 2. Frequency of Squatting Facets in Other Populations + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Population Squatting Sample Citation + Facet Size + Presence + --------------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------------- + Abu Fatima 95% 21 Present study + + Ancient Egypt 96% 300 Satinoff, 1972[^25] + + Ancient Egypt 33% 3 Thomson et al., + 1889[^26] + + Byzantine 13^th^ century 48% 100 Ari et al., 2003[^27] + BCE + + Late Stone Age (1^st^ 50% 56 Dlamini and Morris, + millennium BCE), South 2005[^28] + Africa + + Early farming (5^th^-19^th^ 77% 17 Dlamini and Morris, + centuries CE), South Africa 2005[^29] + + 18th century Cape Town 5% 21 Dlamini and Morris, + 2005[^30] + + 20th century Cape Town 0% 29 Dlamini and Morris, + cadavers 2005[^31] + + South African (Oxford/Royal 27% 11 Thomson, 1889[^32] + College of Surgeons' + Museum) + + Neanderthals (Europe, Near 91% 11 Trinkaus, 1975[^33] + East) + + European (Oxford/Royal 13% 40 Thomson, 1889[^34] + College of Surgeons' + Museum) + + Scottish (Anatomical 17% 118 Wood, 1920[^35] + Department, University of + Edinburgh) + + Asian (Oxford/Royal College 48% 23 Thomson, 1889[^36] + of Surgeons' Museum) + + Native American 37% 19 Thomson, 1889[^37] + (Oxford/Royal College of + Surgeons' Museum) + + Polynesia (Oxford/Royal 75% 4 Thomson, 1889[^38] + College of Surgeons' + Museum) + + Melanesia (Oxford/Royal 71% 38 Thomson, 1889[^39] + College of Surgeons' + Museum) + + Australian (Oxford/Royal 79% 14 Thomson, 1889[^40] + College of Surgeons' + Museum) + + Australian (Collection of 81% 236 Wood, 1920[^41] + Anatomical Museum of the + University of Edinburgh) + + Indian (20^th^ century) 77% 292 Singh, 1959[^42] + cadavers and "museum + specimens" + + Panjabi, Indian 87% 52 Charles, 1893 [^43] + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +One interpretation of these data is that the people of ancient Kush, +just like modern Nubians, spent much of their everyday life in a +squatting position. This may have involved both occupational as well as +leisure activities. It is also interesting that both males and females +exhibit squatting facets, suggesting both sexes were participating in +this position. All adult age categories, young, middle, and old adults, +also possess evidence for squatting. This suggests that the activity was +continued throughout life; if, for example, an individual was a squatter +in childhood or young adulthood but then stopped, the facet would be +obliterated by bone remodeling as they aged. In short, it would appear +that a large portion of the Abu Fatima community, of both sexes and all +age groups, were spending much of their everyday life in a squatting +position. + +It is also interesting to note that previous bioarchaeological research +of the Abu Fatima collection indicates that approximately 25% of this +population were of non-local origin, meaning they migrated from +someplace else and eventually died and were buried at Abu Fatima.[^44] +This was assessed via strontium isotope analysis, which compares +strontium values from dental enamel (produced during childhood) to local +geology; if these values are similar, we can deduce that the individual +was local to the region, however, if these values differ, it is possible +that they migrated into this community. Interestingly, all non-local +individuals also possessed squatting facets. This suggests that the +patterns exhibited here at Abu Fatima, may not be limited to just this +community, but rather may a more pan-Nubian pattern. Using strontium +isotope analysis, it is impossible to pinpoint the point of origin for +an individual, so we cannot say where these non-locals came from. But it +does appear that throughout their life they were habitually +participating in a squatting behavior. + +The one individual in the Abu Fatima collection that did not possess +squatting facets (4E1) is a bit of an oddity. This was a probable male, +dating to the Ancient Kerma period (2,500-2,050 BCE), who likely died +between 35-50. The grave was looted in antiquity and was quite +disturbed, with no skeletal elements remained *in situ*. Despite this, +there is evidence to suggest that this individual may have been +originally been buried with numerous and varied grave goods. Three +lithic blades forming a Nubian-style arrowhead, rawhide sandals, faience +beads, and intricate leatherwork and basketry were all found in this +burial pit. Although it is difficult to say with any certainty given the +looting, it is possible this grave could have belonged to an elite +individual or an individual of a special class (e.g., occupation). For +example, if individual 4E1 were elite, perhaps they didn't squat, but +rather sat in chairs. If they were not participating in common tasks +because of their status, they could have found other positions of +relaxation. Another possible explanation is that this person had an +occupation (e.g., warrior), or daily life, that did not require +squatting. It could also be as simple as this individual did not enjoy +squatting or perhaps an injury, unidentifiable in the skeletal remains, +prevented them from assuming this position. + +If we turn to archaeological evidence for squatting in the Nile Valley, +there are a few examples. It is interesting to note that most of these +samples are associated with the non-elite, working class. For example, +there is an Old Kingdom (probably 6th Dynasty, *ca* 2,345-2,125 BCE) +pottery statuette of a squatting man who appears to be naked and +emaciated (Fig. 4). There is a similar figure, on display at the +Egyptian Museum in Cairo, of an emaciated old squatting man grasping an +ivory staff. There are also multiple examples of figures grinding grain, +like this one, a statuette from the 5th Dynasty (*ca.* 2,465-2,323 +BCE; Giza; Fig. 5). Figures such as these exhibit scenes from everyday +life and were thought to provide resources for deceased in the +afterlife. They can also provide some insight into the types of +activities Nile Valley inhabitants may have done while in a squatting +position. + +In other squatting facet studies, bioarchaeologists have concluded that +individuals with squatting facets may have regularly participated in +grinding, basketmaking, spinning, weaving, baking, milking animals, +preparing dung, knitting rugs, sitting around a fire, and working in the +fields.[^45] There is also some evidence within Egypt to suggest that +scribes may have frequently taken a squatting position.[^46] +Archaeological evidence in Nubia indicates that percussion instruments +were used in a squatting position.[^47] Lastly, there are many +iconographic examples from Ancient Egypt of women given birth in a +squatting position.[^48] However, for the skeleton to modify it would +need to be a highly repetitive behavior. It's certainly possible that +childbirth contributed to the development of squatting facets, it was +probably in combination with other activities. + +![Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).](../static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg "Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).") + +**~~Figure 4. Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).~~** + + +![Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).](../static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg "Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).") + +**~~Figure 5. Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).~~** + + + +Satinoff conducted a study of squatting facets in an Egyptian +sample.[^49] The origins of the skeletal material remain unclear as the +only documentation provided is that they were housed at the Institute of +Anthropology at the University of Turin; however, no chronological or +spatial information was provided. Satinoff found that of the 300 male +and female remains analyzed 96% did in fact have squatting facets. This +is very much congruent with the findings presented here from Abu Fatima. +It does beg the question about genetic predisposition to said facets, +given the relatively genetic homogeneity between Egyptian and Nubians. +Skeletal analysis of additional samples, with well-documented +chronologies and cemetery locations, would be useful to better +understand if the majority of Egyptians and Nubians had squatting +facets, or if the similar values between Abu Fatima and the results +presented by Satinoff are coincidence. Additionally, additional skeletal +analysis of non-adult remains, particularly neonates and infants, could +be used to address the genetic predisposition theory. + +6. Conclusions + +These data provide a novel perspective on everyday life in ancient +Nubia. Up until now, the Nubian quotidian had been examined via built +space, everyday life objects, refuse, as well as skeletal indicators of +physically strenuous activity and dietary practices. This study presents +a unique line of embodied continuity between the ancient Kushites, +inhabiting the Third Cataract region *ca*. 4,000 years ago and the +Nubians that inhabit the region today. While it is impossible to specify +what activities these individuals were engaging while assuming the +squatting posture, these data suggest that both men and women were +regularly squatting at Abu Fatima during the Kushite period. As Abu +Fatima is considered a suburban space, these interpretations are further +evidence for how the ordinary, non-elite population would have lived +their daily lives, both inside and outside of the home. This may have +involved squatting around a fire, preparing food (e.g., grinding, +cooking), playing musical instruments, weaving, flint-knapping, or just +chatting with friends. + +7. Acknowledgements + +My thoughts are with the people of Sudan as the country, at the time of +writing, is in the midst of a horrific war. 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London: Routledge, 2003. + +Spencer, Neal, Anna Stevens, and Michaela Binder, eds. *Nubia in the New +Kingdom: Lived Experience, Pharaonic Control and Indigenous Traditions*. +Leuven: Peeters, 2017. + +Thomson, Arthur, M.A. Oxon, and M.B. Edin. "The Influence of Posture on the +Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the +Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes." *Journal of Anatomy and +Physiology* 23 (1889): pp. 616--39. + +Trinkaus, Erik. "Squatting among the Neandertals: A Problem in the +Behavioral Interpretation of Skeletal Morphology." *Journal of +Archaeological Science* 2, no. 4 (1975): pp. 327--51. + +Wood, W.Q. "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine." *Journal of Anatomy* +54 (1920): pp. 232--57. + +[^1]: Endnotes + + Ari, Oygucu, and Sendemir, "The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of + Byzantine (13th) Skeletons"; Boulle, "Osteological Features + Associatd with Ankle Hyperdorsiflexion"; Dlamini and Morris, "An + Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age + Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the + Mesolithic"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at + the Origins of Labour"; Robb, "Skeletal Signs of Activity in the + Italian Metal Ages"; + Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals." + +[^2]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals," p. 330. + +[^3]: Bourdieu, *Outline of the Theory of Practice*; Giddens, *The + Constitution of Society*; + Schatzki, "Materiality and Social Life." + +[^4]: de Certeau, *The Practice of Everyday Life*. + +[^5]: Robin, *Everyday Life Matters: Maya Farmers at Chan*. + +[^6]: Agha, "Nubia Still Exists"; + Budka and Doyen, "Life in New Kindom Towns in Upper Nubia"; Haaland, "Changing + Food Ways as Indicators of Emerging Complexity in Sudanese Nubia"; + Smith, "Pharoahs, Feasts, and Foreigners"; Smith, *Wretched Kush*; Smith, + "A Potter's Wheelhead from Askut and the Organization of the + Egyptian Ceramic Industry in Nubia"; Smith, "The Nubian Experience + of Egyptian Domination during the New Kingdom"; van Peltt, "Revising + Egypto-Nubian Relations in New Kingdom Lower Nubia"; Spencer, Stevens, and + Binder, *Nubia in the New Kingdom*. + +[^7]: Hedges et al., "Collagen Turnover in the Adult Femoral Mid-Shaft." + +[^8]: Schrader and Torres-Rouff, "Embodying Bioarchaeology." + +[^9]: Schrader, *Activity, Diet and Social Practice*. + +[^10]: Schrader and Buzon, "Everyday Life after Collapse." + +[^11]: Boulle, "Osteological Features Associatd with Ankle + Hyperdorsiflexion"; Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the Mesolithic." + +[^12]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians," p. + 545 + +[^13]: Massada, "Ankle Overuse Injuries in Soccer Players." + +[^14]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indian + Foetuses." + +[^15]: Barnett, "Squatting Facets on the European Talus." + +[^16]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals." + +[^17]: Boulle, "Evolution of Two Human Skeletal Markers of the Squatting + Positoin." + +[^18]: Dlamini and Morris, "An Investigation of the Frequency of + Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa." + +[^19]: Molleson, "Seed Preparation in the Mesolithic." + +[^20]: Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins of Labour." + +[^21]: Schrader and Smith, "Socializing Violence." + +[^22]: Mann, Hunt, and Lozanoff, *Photographic Regional Atlas of + Non-Metric Traits and Anatomical Variants in the Human Skeleton*. + +[^23]: Buikstra and Ubelaker, *Standards for Data Collection from Human + Skeletal Remains*. + +[^24]: Schrader et al., "Decolonizing Bioarchaeology in Sudan." + +[^25]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of Teh Talus and Tibia + in Ancient Egyptians." + +[^26]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of + the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different + Races of Man and the Higher Apes." + +[^27]: Ari, Oygucu, and Sendemir, "The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of + Byzantine (13th) Skeletons." + +[^28]: Dlamini and Morris, "An Investigation of the Frequency of + Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa." + +[^29]: Dlamini and Morris. + +[^30]: Ibid. + +[^31]: Ibid. + +[^32]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of + the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different + Races of Man and the Higher Apes." + +[^33]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals." + +[^34]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of + the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different + Races of Man and the Higher Apes." + +[^35]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine." + +[^36]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of + the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different + Races of Man and the Higher Apes." + +[^37]: Ibid. + +[^38]: Ibid. + +[^39]: Ibid. + +[^40]: Ibid. + +[^41]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine." + +[^42]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians." + +[^43]: Charles, "The Influence of Function, as Exemplified in the + Morphology of the Lower Extremity of the Panjabi." + +[^44]: Schrader et al., "Intraregional 87Sr/86Sr Variation in Nubia." + +[^45]: Baykara et al., "Squatting Facet"; Dlamini and Morris, "An + Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age + Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins + of Labour." + +[^46]: Casson, *Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt*. + +[^47]: Kleinitz, "Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley." + +[^48]: Haimov-Kochman, Sciaky-Tamir, and Hurwitz, "Reproduction Concepts + and Practices in Ancient Egypt Mirrored by Modern Medicine." + +[^49]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia + in Ancient Egyptians." diff --git a/content/author/schrader.md b/content/author/schrader.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2cc5e03 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/author/schrader.md @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +--- +title: Sarah Schrader +affiliation: Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University +--- + +# Biography + +Sarah Schrader is a bioarchaeologist. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/content/issue/dotawo9.md b/content/issue/dotawo9.md index 0a910ea..c16f9a4 100644 --- a/content/issue/dotawo9.md +++ b/content/issue/dotawo9.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- title: "Dotawo 9: Nubian Homescapes from Antiquity to the Present" editors: ["annaboozer.md", "annejennings.md"] -has_articles: ["hamdeen.md", "yvanez.md", "fulcher.md", "sadeq.md", "asmaataha.md", "tsakoswelsby.md"] +has_articles: ["boozerintro.md", "hamdeen.md", "yvanez.md", "fulcher.md", "sadeq.md", "asmaataha.md", "tsakoswelsby.md"] keywords: ["homescape", "home", "homeland", "household", "homelife", "diaspora", "displacement", "tahgeer" ,"Nubia", "Nubian", "Aswan High Dam Campaign", "war", "genocide", "resettlement", "Kom Ombo", "stereotype", "longue durée"] --- diff --git a/static/images/schrader/Fig1.jpg b/static/images/schrader/Fig1.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..85c4385 Binary files /dev/null and b/static/images/schrader/Fig1.jpg differ diff --git a/static/images/schrader/Fig2.jpg b/static/images/schrader/Fig2.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..311a148 Binary files /dev/null and b/static/images/schrader/Fig2.jpg differ diff --git a/static/images/schrader/Fig3.jpg b/static/images/schrader/Fig3.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad85dc6 Binary files /dev/null and b/static/images/schrader/Fig3.jpg differ diff --git a/static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg b/static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc0d72f Binary files /dev/null and b/static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg differ diff --git a/static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg b/static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dffae76 Binary files /dev/null and b/static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg differ