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@ -600,7 +600,7 @@ Neb-hepet-Re\'-Mentu-entu-Hotpe*. Publications of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition, 16. New York, 1945.
[^1]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan)," 1982,
pp. 15-19; 1984, p. 17; 1986, p. 12; 1995, p. 44.
pp. 15-9; 1984, p. 17; 1986, p. 12; 1995, p. 44.
[^2]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan)," 1982,
pp. 15-9.

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@ -394,8 +394,8 @@ the context of the present paper, namely that the word that translates
the Greek term ἀρχιστράτηγος in Old Nubian is ⲥⲟⳟⲟⳝ, which is most
probably the term used to define an Eparch of the Makuritan
kingdom,[^60] more often than not (but not exclusively) linked with the
Late Antique kingdom of Nobadia controlling between the 4^th^-5^th^ and
the 6^th^-7^th^ centuries Lower Nubia.
Late Antique kingdom of Nobadia controlling between the 4th-5th and
the 6th-7th centuries Lower Nubia.
There are, however, more Eparchs attested in the Nubian sources than
just the Eparch of Nobadia. Whether all Eparchs were Songoj or whether
@ -518,7 +518,7 @@ Warsaw: Centre Professeur Kazimierz Michalowski d\'Archéologie
Méditerranéenne de l\'Université de Varsovie: Centre d\'Archéologie
Méditerranéenne de l\'Académie polonaise des Sciences, 1992.
---------. "Old Nubian literature." In *Études Nubiennes. Conférence de
---------. "Old Nubian Literature." In *Études Nubiennes. Conférence de
Genève, Actes du VIIe* *Congrès international d'études nubiennes, 3--8
septembre 1990*, I: *Communications principales*, edited by Charles
Bonnet, pp. 379-87. Geneva: Compotronic SA, 1992.
@ -528,7 +528,7 @@ Bonnet, pp. 379-87. Geneva: Compotronic SA, 1992.
--------- . *The Old Nubian Martyrdom of Saint George* \[=CSCO 575.
Subsidia t. 101\]. Louvain: Peeters, 1998.
--------- . "An Old Nubian translation of the Martyrdom of Saint
--------- . "An Old Nubian Translation of the Martyrdom of Saint
Epimachus." *Le muséon* 115 (2002): pp. 69--76.
Budge, E. A. W. *Miscellaneous Texts in the Dialect of
@ -536,35 +536,35 @@ Upper Egypt*. Coptic Texts; Edited with Introductions and English
Translations, 5. London: British Museum, 1915.
Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope. *Castles and Churches in the
Middle Nile Region* \[=Sudan Antiquities Service Occasional Papers 2).
Middle Nile Region* \[=Sudan Antiquities Service Occasional Papers 2\].
Khartoum, 1953.
Derda, Tomasz and Adam Łajtar. "Greek and
Latin papyri from the Egypt Exploration Society excavations at Qasr
Ibrim: A testimony to the Roman army in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia in
the first years of Augustus." In *Actes du 26e Congrès international de
Derda, Tomasz, and Adam Łajtar. "Greek and
Latin Papyri from the Egypt Exploration Society Excavations at Qasr
Ibrim: A Testimony to the Roman Army in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia in
the First Years of Augustus." In *Actes du 26e Congrès international de
papyrologie, Genève, 16--21 août 2010*, edited by Paul
Schubert, pp. 183--186. Geneva: Libraire Droz, 2012.
--------- . "The Roman Occupation of Qasr Ibrim as Reflected in the
Greek Papyri from the Site." In *Qasr Ibrim, Between Egypt and Africa*,
Greek Papyri from the Site." In *Qasr Ibrim, between Egypt and Africa*,
edited by Jacques Van der Vliet and Joost
Hagen, pp. 105-110. Leuven: Peeters, 2013.
Hagen, pp. 105-10. Leuven: Peeters, 2013.
Drzewiecki, Mariusz. *Mighty Kingdoms and their Forts. The
Drzewiecki, Mariusz. *Mighty Kingdoms and Their Forts. The
Role of Fortified Sites in the Fall of Meroe and Rise of Medieval Realms
in Upper Nubia* (Nubia VI). Warsaw: Institute of Mediterranean and
in Upper Nubia* \[=Nubia VI\]. Warsaw: Institute of Mediterranean and
Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2016.
--------- . "Roman Type Forts in the Middle Nile Valley. Late Antique
Fortlets between Patterns of Roman Military Architecture and Local
Tradition." In *Experiencing the Frontier and the Frontier Experience.
Barbarian Perspectives and Roman Strategies to Deal with New Threats*,
edited by Alexander Rubel and Hans-Ulrich Voß, pp. 179-192. Oxford:
edited by Alexander Rubel and Hans-Ulrich Voß, pp. 179-92. Oxford:
Archaeopress, 2020.
Edwards, David N. "The *Christianisation* of *Nubia*: some
archaeological pointers." *Sudan & Nubia* 5 (2001): pp. 89--96.
Edwards, David N. "The Christianisation of Nubia: Some
Archaeological Pointers." *Sudan & Nubia* 5 (2001): pp. 89--96.
--------- . "Slavery and Slaving in the Medieval and Post-Medieval
Kingdoms of the Middle Nile." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 168
@ -572,15 +572,15 @@ Kingdoms of the Middle Nile." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 168
Esbroeck, Michel van. "Epimachus of Pelusium, Saint." In
*The Coptic Encyclopedia*, vol. 3, edited by Aziz S.
Atiya, pp. 965b-967a. New York: MacMillan, 1991.
\[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/792\] last
accessed in February 2021.
Atiya, pp. 965b-7a. New York: MacMillan, 1991.
\[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/792, last
accessed in February 2021\].
--------- . "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint." In *The Coptic
Encyclopedia*, vol. 5, edited by Aziz S. Atiya, pp.
1592a-1594a. New York: MacMillan, 1991.
\[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/1327\] last
accessed in February 2021.
1592a-4a. New York: MacMillan, 1991.
\[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/1327, last
accessed in February 2021\].
Foulon, Eric. "Hypaspistes, peltastes, chrysaspides,
argyraspides, chalcaspides." *Revue des études anciennes* 98 (1996): pp.
@ -593,18 +593,18 @@ royaume de Méroé : Les enterrements privés* \[=Orient et Méditerranée
Frend, William H.C. "The Cult of Military Saints in
Christian Nubia." In *Theologia Crucis -- Signum Crucis. Festschrift für
Erich Dinkler zum 70. Geburtstag*, edited by Carl Andersen
and Günter Klein, pp. 155-163. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
and Günter Klein, pp. 155-63. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1979.
--------- . "Fragments of a version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr
--------- . "Fragments of a Version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr
Ibrim." *Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum* 32 (1989): pp. 89-104.
Van Gerven Oei, Vincent WJ. *A Reference Grammar of Old
Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J. *A Reference Grammar of Old
Nubian*. Leuven: Peeters, 2021.
Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J., Vincent Laisney, Giovanni
Ruffini, Alexandros Tsakos, Kerstin
Weber and Petra Weschenfelder, *The Old
Weber, and Petra Weschenfelder, *The Old
Nubian Texts from Attiri*. \[=Dotawo Monographs 1\]. n/a: Punctum, 2016.
Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J., and Alexandros Tsakos.
@ -612,10 +612,12 @@ Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J., and Alexandros Tsakos.
Ivan Miroshnikov. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming.
Griffith, Francis Llewellyn. "Christian Documents from
Nubia." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 14 (1928): pp. 117-146.
Nubia." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 14 (1928): pp. 117-46.
Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of bronze
and expressions of masculinity: The emergence of a warrior class at
Hafsaas Henriette, and Alexandros Tsakos. "Michael and other archangels behind an eight-pointed cross-symbol from Medieval Nubia: A view from Sai Island in northern Sudan," *Pharos Journal of Theology* \[DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.102.12\].
Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of Bronze
and Expressions of Masculinity: The Emergence of a Warrior Class at
Kerma in Sudan." *Antiquity*, 87/335 (2013): pp. 79-91.
Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. *War on the
@ -623,12 +625,12 @@ Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt: A Warfare
Perspective on the History of the A-Group People in Lower Nubia during
the 4th millennium BCE*. PhD thesis. University of Bergen, 2015.
Hendrickx, Benjamin, "The "Lord of the Mountain". A Study
Hendrickx, Benjamin. "The "Lord of the Mountain". A Study
of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*." *Le Muséon* 124/3-4 (2011): pp.
303-355.
303-55.
Hägg, Tomas. "Titles and honorific epithets in Nubian
Greek texts." *Symbolae Osloenses* 65 (1990): pp. 147-177.
Hägg, Tomas. "Titles and Honorific Epithets in Nubian
Greek texts." *Symbolae Osloenses* 65 (1990): pp. 147-77.
Jakobielski, Stefan. *Pachoras/Faras: The Wall Paintings
from the Cathedrals of Aetios, Paulos and Petros* \[=PAM Monograph
@ -641,8 +643,8 @@ Koukounas, Konstantinos, *Georgios Phrantzes, Chronicon*.
Athens: Politeia 2018 (in Greek: [Κουκούνας Κωνσταντίνος
(επ.), *Χρονικό. Φραντζής Γεώργιος (Σφραντζής)*. Αθήνα: Πολιτεία 2018)
Lenoble, Patrice. *El-Hobagi: Une Necropole de Rang
Imperial Au Soudan Central* (Fouilles de l\'Institut Francais
Lenoble, Patrice. *El-Hobagi: Une necropole de rang
imperial au Soudan Central* (Fouilles de l\'Institut Francais
d\'Archeologie Orientale). Cairo: IFAO, 2018.
Łajtar, Adam. "On the Name of the Capital of the Nubian
@ -672,17 +674,17 @@ Collection of the National Museum in Warsaw*. Warsaw, 1974.
Osman, Ali. "The Post-Medieval Kingdom of Kokka: A Means
for a Better Understanding of the Administration of the Medieval Kingdom
of Dongola." In *Nubian Studies*, edited by Jack Martin Plumley, pp.
185-197. Cambridge, 1978.
185-97. Cambridge, 1978.
Ostrogorsky, George. "Observations on the Aristocracy in
Byzantium." *Dumbarton Oaks Papers* 25 (1971): pp. 1-32.
Piankoff, Alexandre. "Peintures au monastère de Saint
Antoine." *Bullétin de la Société d'archéologie copte* XIV (1958): pp.
151-163.
151-63.
Plumley, Jack Martin and Gerald Michael
Browne, *Old Nubian Texts from Qasr Ibrim, volume 1*.
Plumley, Jack Martin, and Gerald Michael
Browne, *Old Nubian Texts from Qasr Ibrim, Volume 1*.
London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1988.
Ruffini, Giovanni. *Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic
@ -724,10 +726,7 @@ forthcoming.
in Nubia". In *Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Nubian
Studies*, edited by Vincent Rondot. Paris, forthcoming*.*
--------- . "The Christianization of Nubia". In *Christianization
Processes along the Nile: Texts, Monasticism and Ecclesiastic Structures
in Egypt, Ethiopia and Nubia*, edited by [Derat,
Marie-Laure and Alexandros Tsakos. Paris, in preparation.
--------- . "The Christianization of Nubia". In preparation.
Vantini, Giovanni Fr. *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*.
Warsaw -- Heidelberg, 1975.
@ -742,11 +741,11 @@ Meroitic Empires*. London: British Museum Press, 1996.
--------- . *The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and
Muslims along the Middle Nile*. London: British Museum Press, 2012.
Zielińska, Dobrochna and Alexandros Tsakos.
Zielińska, Dobrochna, and Alexandros Tsakos.
"Representations of the Archangel Michael in Wall Paintings from
Christian Nubia." In *The Archangel Michael in Africa: History, Cult and
Persona*, edited by Ingvild Sælid Gilhus, Alexandros
Tsakos and Marta Camilla[Wright, pp. 79-94.
Tsakos, and Marta Camilla Wright, pp. 79-94.
London-New York-Oxford-New Delhi-Sydney: Bloomsbury Academics 2019.
Żurawski, Bogdan. "Strongholds on the Middle Nile: Nubian
@ -762,14 +761,14 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
[^2]: For a general presentation, see Welsby, *The
Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia*, pp. 78-82.
[^3]: Edwards, "The *Christianisation* of *Nubia*: some
archaeological pointers", p. 89
[^3]: Edwards, "The Christianisation of Nubia: Some
Archaeological Pointers," p. 89
[^4]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging
State of Ancient Egypt*.
[^5]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity:
The emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan".
[^5]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of Bronze and Expressions of Masculinity:
The Emergence of a Warrior Class at Kerma in Sudan."
[^6]: Welsby, *The Kingdom of Kush*, pp. 39-50.
@ -779,22 +778,22 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
[^8]: Lenoble, *El-Hobagi*.
[^9]: Crawford, *Castles and Churches in the Middle Nile
Region.*
Region*.
[^10]: Drzewiecki, *Mighty Kingdoms and their Forts.*
[^10]: Drzewiecki, *Mighty Kingdoms and their Forts*.
[^11]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*;
Seignobos, *L'Égypte et la Nubie à l'époque
médiévale.*
médiévale*.
[^12]: Edwards, "Slavery and Slaving in the Medieval and
Post-Medieval Kingdoms of the Middle Nile".
Post-Medieval Kingdoms of the Middle Nile."
[^13]: All the Old Nubian words assembled in this study can be found in
Browne, Old Nubian Dictionary (hence OND).
[^14]: Frend, "The Cult of Military Saints in Christian
Nubia".
Nubia."
[^15]: For the correction of the date from 1156, see
Ruffini, *Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic
@ -814,52 +813,51 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
[^20]: Łajtar, *A Late Christian Pilgrimage Centre in
Nubia. The Evidence of Wall Inscriptions in the Upper Church at
Banganarti*, pp. 383-385 (inscription nr. 578). The citation is from
Banganarti*, pp. 383-85 (inscription nr. 578). The citation is from
p. 384.
[^21]: Idem, p. 562-3 and inscription 964.
[^22]: Tsakos, "Miscellanea Epigraphica Nubica III:
Epimachos of Attiri: a Warrior Saint of Late Christian Nubia", pp.
Epimachos of Attiri: a Warrior Saint of Late Christian Nubia," pp.
215-7.
[^23]: Esbroeck, "Epimachus of Pelusium, Saint", *Coptic
Encyclopedia*, pp. 965b-967a.
[^23]: Esbroeck, "Epimachus of Pelusium, Saint," pp. 965b-7a.
[^24]: Van der Vliet, *I. Khartoum Copt.*, pp. 83-4 (nr.
24).
[^25]: Browne, "An Old Nubian Version of the Martyrdom of
Saint Epimachus" and "An Old Nubian translation of the Martyrdom of
Saint Epimachus".
Saint Epimachus."
[^26]: See Tsakos, "Miscellanea Epigraphica Nubica III:
Epimachos of Attiri: a Warrior Saint of Late Christian Nubia", p.
Epimachos of Attiri: a Warrior Saint of Late Christian Nubia," p.
213 with an image of the plaque and pp. 220-1 for the other
representations with references
[^27]: Frend, "The Cult of Military Saints in Christian
Nubia", pp. 156-8.
Nubia," pp. 156-8.
[^28]: For the reference, see Idem, p. 157 and note 9.
[^29]: Piankoff, "Peintures au monastère de Saint
Antoine", p. 160 and ill. IV.
Antoine," p. 160 and ill. IV.
[^30]: Esbroeck, "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint", pp.
[^30]: Esbroeck, "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint," pp.
1593b-1594a.
[^31]: See Frend, "The Cult of Military Saints in
Christian Nubia", p. 157 for references.
Christian Nubia," p. 157 for references.
[^32]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*, p.
40; Seignobos, *L'Égypte et la Nubie à l'époque
médiévale*, p. 96.
[^33]: Tsakos, "The Christianization of Nubia".
[^33]: Tsakos, "The Christianization of Nubia."
[^34]: For the find from Qasr Ibrim, see Frend, "Fragments
of a version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr Ibrim". For the find
of a version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr Ibrim." For the find
from Kulubnarti, see Browne, *The Old Nubian Martyrdom
of Saint George*.
@ -871,21 +869,21 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
Banganarti*, pp. 20-30.
[^37]: Frend, "Fragments of a version of the Acta S.
Georgii from Q\'asr Ibrim", pp. 103-4.
Georgii from Q\'asr Ibrim," pp. 103-4.
[^38]: Idem., p. 94.
[^39]: See Derda and Łajtar, "Greek and
Latin papyri from the Egypt Exploration Society excavations at Qasr
Ibrim: A testimony to the Roman army in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia
in the first years of Augustus", p. 185; Derda and
in the first years of Augustus," p. 185; Derda and
Łajtar, "The Roman Occupation of Qasr Ibrim as
Reflected in the Greek Papyri from the Site", pp. 105-6 and notes 1
Reflected in the Greek Papyri from the Site," pp. 105-6 and notes 1
and 2 for references.
[^40]: Drzewiecki, "Roman Type Forts in the Middle Nile
Valley. Late Antique Fortlets between Patterns of Roman Military
Architecture and Local Tradition".
Architecture and Local Tradition."
[^41]: Browne, *The Old Nubian Martyrdom of Saint George*,
p. 11.
@ -896,19 +894,19 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
[^43]: This passage has been interpreted as a later interpolation by the
copyist of the original work in Old Nubian, see Van Gerven
Oei and Tsakos, "Apostolic Memoirs in Old
Nubian".
Nubian."
[^44]: It should be noted that two more terms may be linked with ⲅⲟⲩⲉⲓ
for "shield": the first is ⲅⲟⲩϣ (or ⲅⲟⲩⲥ), perhaps from ⲅⲟⲩⲉⲓ for
"shield" and ϣⲁ for "spear", but [Osman, "The
Post-Medieval Kingdom of Kokka: A Means for a Better Understanding
of the Administration of the Medieval Kingdom of Dongola", p. 191
of the Administration of the Medieval Kingdom of Dongola," p. 191
proposes an alternative explanation of the word, albeit still
interpreted as a military title; and the second is ⲅⲟⲩⲁⲇ, about
which there is even less certainty.
[^45]: Foulon, "Hypaspistes, peltastes, chrysaspides,
argyraspides, chalcaspides".
argyraspides, chalcaspides."
[^46]: Maspero, *Organisation militaire de l'Égypte
byzantine*, pp. 66-68.
@ -918,7 +916,7 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
1095-1402*.
[^48]: Ostrogorsky, "Observations on the Aristocracy in
Byzantium", pp. 13-14
Byzantium," pp. 13-14
[^49]: Koukounas, *Georgios Phrantzes, Chronicon*.
@ -934,17 +932,17 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
médiévale*, p. 53-91.
[^53]: Łajtar, "On the Name of the Capital of the Nubian
Kingdom of Makuria".
Kingdom of Makuria."
[^54]: Budge, *Miscellaneous Texts in the Dialect of Upper
Egypt*, pp. 858-61.
[^55]: Zielińska and Tsakos,
"Representations of the Archangel Michael in Wall Paintings from
Christian Nubia", pp. 85-6.
Christian Nubia," pp. 85-6.
[^56]: Tsakos, "Sources about the cult and persona of the
archangel Michael in Nubia".
[^56]: See Hafsaas and Tsakos, "Michael and other archangels behind an eight-pointed cross-symbol from Medieval Nubia: A view from Sai Island in northern Sudan"; Tsakos, "Sources about the cult and persona of the
archangel Michael in Nubia."
[^57]: For the use of the title archistratēgos for the archangel
Raphael, see Łajtar, *A Late Christian Pilgrimage
@ -952,11 +950,11 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
Church at Banganarti*, p. 46.
[^58]: Tsakos, "The Liber Institutionis Michaelis in
Medieval Nubia".
Medieval Nubia."
[^59]: About this coincidence, see Browne, "Old Nubian
literature", p. 382 and Tsakos "Textual finds from
Cerre Matto".
literature," p. 382; Tsakos, "Textual finds from
Cerre Matto."
[^60]: Ruffini, *Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic
History*, pp. 34-5.
@ -976,26 +974,26 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013.
[^64]: For a discussion framed as background for an analysis of the
title "Eparch of Nobadia," see Hendrickx, "The "Lord
of the Mountain". A Study of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*".
of the Mountain". A Study of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*."
[^65]: Mason, *Greek Terms for Roman Institutions: A
Lexicon and Analysis*, pp. 138-40.
[^66]: Żurawski, "Strongholds on the Middle Nile: Nubian
Fortifications of the Middle Ages", pp. 115-8.
Fortifications of the Middle Ages," pp. 115-8.
[^67]: Tsakos, "Terms for Boats and Navigation in Old
Nubia".
Nubia."
[^68]: Żurawski, "Strongholds on the Middle Nile: Nubian
Fortifications of the Middle Ages", p. 116.
Fortifications of the Middle Ages," p. 116.
[^69]: Welsby, *The Kingdom of Kush*, p. 40
[^70]: Hägg, "Titles and honorific epithets in Nubian
Greek texts", pp. 161-2.
[^70]: Hägg, "Titles and Honorific Epithets in Nubian
Greek texts," pp. 161-2.
[^71]: Griffith, "Christian Documents from Nubia", pp.
134-45; [Łajtar, "The so-called Kudanbes Inscription in
[^71]: Griffith, "Christian Documents from Nubia," pp.
134-45; Łajtar, "The so-called Kudanbes Inscription in
Deir Anba Hadra (St. Simeon Monastery) near Aswan: An Attempt at a
New Reading and Interpretation".
New Reading and Interpretation."