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@ -26,9 +26,7 @@ Earth was used as the building material in all ancient cultures, not
only for homes but for religious buildings as well.[^4] In Sudan, the only for homes but for religious buildings as well.[^4] In Sudan, the
study of earthen construction materials is very rare, mudbricks were study of earthen construction materials is very rare, mudbricks were
considered common building materials that were used in Sudan from 2500 considered common building materials that were used in Sudan from 2500
BCE, during BCE, during the Kerma period, and are still widely used as building materials in
the Kerma period, and are still widely used as building materials in
many regions of Sudan. The materials used to make these bricks include many regions of Sudan. The materials used to make these bricks include
Nile mud, sand, chopped straw, and animal dung. Makers mixed these Nile mud, sand, chopped straw, and animal dung. Makers mixed these
materials in varying quantities to produce bricks with different materials in varying quantities to produce bricks with different
@ -67,10 +65,10 @@ trees also play an essential role in the building of animal pens.
As for the elements of the interior homescape, wood, palm and doum As for the elements of the interior homescape, wood, palm and doum
fronds are used as a basic element in the manufacture of home fronds are used as a basic element in the manufacture of home
furniture, such as beds, wooden chairs, and *brooches* that are used furniture, such as beds, wooden chairs, and *brooches* that are used
as rugs for sitting, in addition to the use of palm and doum palm as rugs for sitting. In addition palm and doum palm
leaves in the manufacture of ropes, shoes, also were used as hangers leaves were used in the manufacture of ropes, shoes, as well as hangers
called locally "*mashlaib*" which are used to place food utensils in called locally "*mashlaib*" which are used to place food utensils in
high areas of the ground and *Tabag* which used for the covering food. high areas of the ground and *Tabag* which are used for the covering food.
In the internal homescape of Sudanese houses wood is also used to In the internal homescape of Sudanese houses wood is also used to
manufacture what is called "Sahara" which is used to store clothes, manufacture what is called "Sahara" which is used to store clothes,
decorative items, and other items inside homes. In addition, human decorative items, and other items inside homes. In addition, human
@ -109,7 +107,7 @@ Dosha (west bank) and Wawa (east bank), in the north. Its northern
boundary is most visibly marked by the cliff-face known as Jebel Dosha boundary is most visibly marked by the cliff-face known as Jebel Dosha
which overlooks the west bank of the river some five kilometers which overlooks the west bank of the river some five kilometers
downstream of Soleb, the end of a long ridge that runs approximately downstream of Soleb, the end of a long ridge that runs approximately
three kilometers into the desert to the west-north- west, forming a three kilometers into the desert to the west-north-west, forming a
prominent natural feature, the region extends over a distance of prominent natural feature, the region extends over a distance of
approximately 141 kilometers (ca. 88 miles) from Hannik to Wawa. approximately 141 kilometers (ca. 88 miles) from Hannik to Wawa.
Within this area, the landscape is highly varied, including some very Within this area, the landscape is highly varied, including some very
@ -121,6 +119,12 @@ three main areas (north, middle, and south) of the El Mahas region in
April 2019. I chose these four sites to serve as case studies for the April 2019. I chose these four sites to serve as case studies for the
study of mudbrick inclusions in Christian Sudan. study of mudbrick inclusions in Christian Sudan.
![The area of study.](../static/images/hamdeen/Fig1.jpg "The area of study.")
**~~Figure 1. The area of study.~~**
These four sites can be described in brief as follows: These four sites can be described in brief as follows:
**Site (1) TMB016** (19°42.935/30°22.72)**:** This site was located **Site (1) TMB016** (19°42.935/30°22.72)**:** This site was located
@ -156,7 +160,7 @@ is Hambujneen Kisse (Osman and Edwards 2012) (Fig.2b).
a rocky hillock, with modern buildings on lower ground below the hill. a rocky hillock, with modern buildings on lower ground below the hill.
It is a well-preserved medieval settlement known by local people as It is a well-preserved medieval settlement known by local people as
Tinutti. At least five substantial mudbrick structures can be Tinutti. At least five substantial mudbrick structures can be
identified. It is well-preserved. Several rooms still retain their identified. Several rooms still retain their
barrel vaulting and parts of the central structure stand nearly 5 barrel vaulting and parts of the central structure stand nearly 5
meters high. meters high.
@ -183,10 +187,6 @@ survived appears to be 'Late' and 'Terminal Christian' ceramic types.
Outside this structure are traces of less substantial structures Outside this structure are traces of less substantial structures
surviving as a few courses of rough stone walling (Fig.2d).[^9] surviving as a few courses of rough stone walling (Fig.2d).[^9]
![The area of study.](../static/images/hamdeen/Fig1.jpg "The area of study.")
**~~Figure 1. The area of study.~~**
![The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).](../static/images/hamdeen/Fig2.jpg "The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).") ![The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).](../static/images/hamdeen/Fig2.jpg "The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).")
**~~Figure 2. The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).~~** **~~Figure 2. The four sites discussed in the chapter: a) TMB016. b) MAS021. c) DFF008. d) DFF009 (photos by Eng. Omer).~~**
@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ and sand. Two metal sieves with a mesh size of 0.5 and 1 millimetres
were used for the wet sieving to separate the plant remains. The were used for the wet sieving to separate the plant remains. The
separated material was dried and examined under binoculars in the separated material was dried and examined under binoculars in the
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Al Neelain Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Al Neelain
(Sudan), and Institute of Archaeology, University of Nicolas Copernicus, (Sudan), and Institute of Archaeology, University of Nicolas Copernicus
(Poland). To aid with identification, we used fresh seeds as a reference (Poland). To aid with identification, we used fresh seeds as a reference
collection alongside determination literature. Some animal dung and collection alongside determination literature. Some animal dung and
insect remains were separated during the sorting processing of the plant insect remains were separated during the sorting processing of the plant
@ -215,23 +215,23 @@ macro-remains.
## Results of extracted plant remains from the Homescape ## Results of extracted plant remains from the Homescape
Seven plant species were encountered as seeds\\fruits were extracted and Seven plant species were encountered as seeds, while fruits were extracted and
identified from the mudbrick samples. The assemblage of seeds and fruits identified from the mudbrick samples. The assemblage of seeds and fruits
were preserved by desiccation. Table (1) shows the Latin names of the were preserved by desiccation. Table (1) shows the Latin names of the
determined species and their distribution in the sites. The cereal determined species and their distribution in the sites. The cereal
appeared clearly and can be identified from the seeds of the *Triticum appeared clearly and can be identified from the seeds of the *Triticum
aestivum* (Fig.3a)*, Hordeum vulgare* (Fig.3b) added to some parts of aestivum* (Fig.3a)* and Hordeum vulgare* (Fig.3b). These two cereals were added to some parts of
spikelets, chaffs, and glume fragments for those two cereals. *Sorghum spikelets, chaffs, and glume fragments. *Sorghum
bicolor* was presented from spikelet with grain inside (Fig.4c) and bicolor* was presented from spikelet with grain inside (Fig.4c) and
*Setaria italica* was also represented from their seeds. (Fig.3d) *Setaria italica* was also represented from their seeds (Fig.3d).
*Adansonia digitate* appeared from small fragments of the fruit pulp *Adansonia digitate* appeared from small fragments of the fruit pulp
shell (Fig.3e) *Acacia nilotica* was identified from the seed remains shell (Fig.3e). *Acacia nilotica* was identified from the seed remains
(Fig.3f) the *Cyperus rotundus* which appeared in the materials from the (Fig.3f) and the *Cyperus rotundus* appeared in the materials from the
complete purple nutsedge roots (Fig.3g). Some animal remains, animal complete purple nutsedge roots (Fig.3g). Some animal remains, animal
dung (Fig. 3h) and insect remains (Fig.3i) appeared in the samples. More dung (Fig. 3h), and insect remains (Fig.3i) appeared in the samples. More
analysis for identification will be done at a later date. analysis for further identifications will be done at a later date.
![A table showing plant species that were identified from the Samples.](../static/images/hafsaas/Table1.jpg "A table showing plant species that were identified from the Samples.") ![A table showing plant species that were identified from the Samples.](../static/images/hamdeen/Table1.jpg "A table showing plant species that were identified from the Samples.")
**~~Table 1. Plant species that were identified from the Samples.~~** **~~Table 1. Plant species that were identified from the Samples.~~**
@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ others (namely rice, wheat, barley, maize).[^17] Sorghum is especially
important in the semiarid tropics of Africa and South Asia, with important in the semiarid tropics of Africa and South Asia, with
significant production also in China, Southeast Asia, and the significant production also in China, Southeast Asia, and the
Americas.[^18] There is clear evidence for the use of wild sorghum in Americas.[^18] There is clear evidence for the use of wild sorghum in
the eastern Sahara as early 6000 BCE and by Neolithic populations in the eastern Sahara as early as 6000 BCE and by Neolithic populations in
central Sudan by the fourth millennium BCE.[^19] Evidence for the central Sudan by the fourth millennium BCE.[^19] Evidence for the
transition from wild sorghum to domesticated sorghum can be sequenced transition from wild sorghum to domesticated sorghum can be sequenced
in the stratigraphy of Qasr Ibrim. It suggests that domestication may in the stratigraphy of Qasr Ibrim. It suggests that domestication may
@ -396,7 +396,7 @@ of which have medical and ethnographic value. These plants were
probably collected or available for this purpose by people living in probably collected or available for this purpose by people living in
the Christian settlements in the Third Cataract region. One of these the Christian settlements in the Third Cataract region. One of these
riverine wild floras is *Cyperus rotundus,* a type of grass that riverine wild floras is *Cyperus rotundus,* a type of grass that
appear from the complete purple nutsedge roots from site TMB016, appeared from the complete purple nutsedge roots from site TMB016,
DFF008 and DFF009. This species has been in association with humans DFF008 and DFF009. This species has been in association with humans
from remote pre-history to the present. It was consumed as a food for from remote pre-history to the present. It was consumed as a food for
thousands of years in prehistoric times, but is viewed as a thousands of years in prehistoric times, but is viewed as a
@ -406,8 +406,8 @@ tuber, thought to have been collected as food, were found at the
later sites at Al Khiday, 25 kilometers south of Omdurman.[^30] The later sites at Al Khiday, 25 kilometers south of Omdurman.[^30] The
complex of burial sites has yielded dental calculus samples from complex of burial sites has yielded dental calculus samples from
pre-Mesolithic, Neolithic, Late Meroitic, and Mesolithic ages, pre-Mesolithic, Neolithic, Late Meroitic, and Mesolithic ages,
covering more than 7000 years, Cyperaceae tuber was recoded from the covering more than 7000 years. Cyperaceae tuber was recorded from the
Kushite site at Kawa dating back to Napatan period 750-400 BCE.[^31] Kushite site at Kawa dating back to Napatan period (750-400 BCE).[^31]
Ecologically, *Cyperus rotundus* is commonly found in cultivated Ecologically, *Cyperus rotundus* is commonly found in cultivated
areas, disturbed areas, roadsides, lawns, parks, and wastelands, and areas, disturbed areas, roadsides, lawns, parks, and wastelands, and
@ -533,7 +533,7 @@ period for water storage, medical needs, and shelter as well. Today
Sudanese women employ *Cyperus rotundus* for cosmetic and perfumery Sudanese women employ *Cyperus rotundus* for cosmetic and perfumery
purposes, and it may have been used during the Christian period also. purposes, and it may have been used during the Christian period also.
There are three flora landscape in the area of study based on our There are three flora landscapes in the area of study based on our
plant remains, cultivated flora which include the four cereals: plant remains, cultivated flora which include the four cereals:
*Triticum aestivum*, *Hordeum vulgare, Sorghum bicolor,* and *Setaria *Triticum aestivum*, *Hordeum vulgare, Sorghum bicolor,* and *Setaria
italica*. Riverine wild flora which can noted clearly form the remains italica*. Riverine wild flora which can noted clearly form the remains
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[^4]: Minke *Building with Earth Design and Technology of a [^4]: Minke *Building with Earth Design and Technology of a
Sustainable Architecture*, pp. 11--12. Sustainable Architecture*, pp. 11--12.
[^5]: Van Beek and Van Beek *Glorious Mud!*, p. 135. [^5]: Van Beek and Van Beek, *Glorious Mud!*, p. 135.
[^6]: Hillman, "Traditional Husbandry and Processing of Archaic [^6]: Hillman, "Traditional Husbandry and Processing of Archaic
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[^16]: On the Napatan site HP736 in the Wadi Umm Rahau at the Fourth [^16]: On the Napatan site HP736 in the Wadi Umm Rahau at the Fourth
Nile Cataract, see Badura, "Plant Remains from the Napatan Settlement in Wadi Nile Cataract, see Badura, "Plant Remains from the Napatan Settlement in Wadi
Umm-Rahau." On the Egyptian and Napatan site in Umm-Rahau." On the Egyptian and Napatan site in
Kawa, see Fuller, "Early Kushite Agriculture." On Gala Abu Ahmad, see Kahlheber, "Archaeobotanical Investigations at the Gala Abu Kawa, see Fuller, "Early Kushite Agriculture." On Gala Abu Ahmed, see Kahlheber, "Archaeobotanical Investigations at the Gala Abu
Ahmed Fortress in Lower Wadi Howar, Northern Sudan." On Ahmed Fortress in Lower Wadi Howar, Northern Sudan." On
Meroe, see Shinnie and Anderson, *The Capital of Kush 2*, p. 366. Meroe, see Shinnie and Anderson, *The Capital of Kush 2*, p. 366.

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@ -384,21 +384,21 @@ than ever.
**References** **References**
Ingold, Tim. \"The Temporality of the Landscape.\" *Conceptions of Time Ingold, Tim. \"The Temporality of the Landscape.\" *Conceptions of Time
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Janmyr, Maja. \"The Nubians of Egypt: A Displaced Population.\" In *An Janmyr, Maja. \"The Nubians of Egypt: A Displaced Population.\" In *An
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[^1]: For a basic geographic and temporal introduction to Nubia, see [^1]: For a basic geographic and temporal introduction to Nubia, see
Janmyr, \"The Nubians of Egypt: a displaced population.\" Janmyr, \"The Nubians of Egypt: a displaced population.\"