Merge branch 'master' of https://git.sandpoints.org/UnionForNubianStudies/Dotawo

content/article/honegger.md

@@ -20,14 +20,14 @@ keywords: []
 # Introduction
 
 It is known that at the time of the Egyptian Kingdom, Nubia represented
-a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1^st^ to the
+a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1st to the
-5^th^ cataract. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are
+5th cataract. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are
 depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae or engraved
 rocks, on bas-reliefs or painted tomb walls. As early as the Old
 Kingdom, they were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and
 probably formed troops, as shown in the model representing them in the
-tomb of Prince Mesheti (11^th^ Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is
+tomb of Prince Mesheti (11th Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is
-itself designated from the beginning of the 3^rd^ millennium by a
+itself designated from the beginning of the 3rd millennium by a
 hieroglyph in the shape of a bow, *Ta-Sety*, which means the land of the
 bow. Despite this evidence of the importance of these warriors and their
 weapons, archaeological finds of Nubian archers\' tombs contemporary
@@ -41,14 +41,17 @@ had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow
 remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows
 was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
 
+![Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)](../static/images/honegger/Fig1.jpg "Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)")
+**~~Figure 1. Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)~~**
+
 The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the
 abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as for the numerous
-traumas present on its skeletonsy.[^5] These observations led to the
+traumas present on its skeletons.[^5] These observations led to the
 view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of
 violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final
 phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known
 thanks to the work of George A. Reisner, undertaken at the beginning of
-the 20^th^ century.[^6] Since then, excavations were undertaken between
+the 20th century.[^6] Since then, excavations were undertaken between
 1979 and 1999 by Charles Bonnet, who investigated 27 sectors spread over
 its entire surface (Fig. 2), and between 2008 and 2018, we have
 undertaken systematic excavations in sectors of the early stages of the
@@ -59,7 +62,11 @@ archers, on cases of violence, as well as on the phenomena of servitude,
 wealth, and funerary ostentation that was co-eval with the birth of the
 kingdom and its domination over a large part of Upper Nubia.
 
-**The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma and its new excavation**
+![Plan of the Eastern Cemetery with the locations of large graves excavated since the early 20th century identified. The sectors investigated by Reisner between 1913-1916 are indicated. Sectors 1-27 were excavated by Bonnet between 1980-1997, whilst Sectors 27-31, as well as Sector 8, have been excavated or re-examined during our excavations which began in 2008.](../static/images/honegger/Fig2.jpg "Plan of the Eastern Cemetery with the locations of large graves excavated since the early 20th century identified. The sectors investigated by Reisner between 1913-1916 are indicated. Sectors 1-27 were excavated by Bonnet between 1980-1997, whilst Sectors 27-31, as well as Sector 8, have been excavated or re-examined during our excavations which began in 2008.")
+**~~Figure 2. Plan of the Eastern Cemetery with the locations of large graves excavated since the early 20th century identified. The sectors investigated by Reisner between 1913-1916 are indicated. Sectors 1-27 were excavated by Bonnet between 1980-1997, whilst Sectors 27-31, as well as Sector 8, have been excavated or re-examined during our excavations which began in 2008.~~**
+
+
+# The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma and its new excavation
 
 As part of our programme on the evolution of society in Early Kerma, we
 have reinvestigated and completed the excavations of Sectors 23, 27, and
@@ -134,6 +141,9 @@ like that recently discovered in Sector 31, whose diameter exceeds 10
 metres, and which has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the
 tumulus.[^11]
 
+![Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.](../static/images/honegger/Fig5.jpg "Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.")
+**~~Figure 5. Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.~~**
+
 Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and, for this
 period, it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in
 diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society
@@ -144,7 +154,7 @@ free men and women.[^12] In certain instances, a mud-brick chapel was
 erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13]
 
 During Classic Kerma, the diameter of the largest graves is between 30
-and 90 meters in diameter. The three most famous ones were built to a
+and 90 meters. The three most famous ones were built to a
 uniform size with tumuli approximately 90 meters in diameter (KIII, IV,
 X). Composed of a complex internal structure of mud-brick walls with a
 corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, they are assumed to
@@ -172,10 +182,13 @@ However, it is not possible to conclude definitively that the presence
 of male archers was systematic for all phases of the Eastern Cemetery
 without looking at the previous excavations of Reisner and Bonnet.
 
+![Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.](../static/images/honegger/Fig7.jpg "Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.")
+**~~Figure 7. Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.~~**
+
 The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was
 excavated in 1915 by Reisner, then in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp
-(135 graves). The documentation[^18] published after the death of
+(135 graves). The documentation published after the death of
-Reisner, is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery
+Reisner,[^18] is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery
 corresponding to Classic Kerma and excavated in 1913-1914.[^19] The
 tombs excavated by Kemp have not been spatially located. Nevertheless,
 we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers *Kerma
@@ -198,9 +211,9 @@ part attributed to Classic Kerma yields only 700. Simulations of burial
 recruitment show that this part of the cemetery is the most selective
 and contains only a small section of the ruling class, in contrast to
 earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by
-daggers, which led Hafsaas[^22] to conclude that there was a warrior
+daggers, which led Hafsaas to conclude that there was a warrior
 elite displaying this type of weapon, as was the case in Europe in the
-Late Bronze and Iron Ages.
+Late Bronze and Iron Ages.[^22]
 
 In the excavations of Bonnet, which involved just over 250 tombs, a few
 archers were identified. Again, the excavations were carried out almost
@@ -245,7 +258,7 @@ to manufacture the bows, since these had been too severely damaged by
 termites.
 
 \- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, are similar
-to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6^th^ to 12^th^
+to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6th to 12th
 Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The
 arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint
 (Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of
@@ -291,7 +304,7 @@ coat of leopards, such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we
 never found a leopard-skin loincloth during our excavations in the
 Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were
 naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from
-Wadi Sabu at the 3^rd^ cataract (Fig. 17), where a series of six archers
+Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract (Fig. 17), where a series of six archers
 wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very
 close to that observed at Kerma;[^37] among this group, only one archer
 is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not
@@ -303,7 +316,7 @@ attach a feather.[^38]
 # Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state
 
 At Kerma, men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their
-archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards, and continues for
+archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards, and this continues for
 several centuries, probably until the end of the Middle Kerma about 1750
 BC. Clearly, there is a symbolic dimension to this display, underscored
 by the fact that even children as young as 1.5 years old are equipped
@@ -343,7 +356,7 @@ proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of
 Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of the exchanges (Fig.
 18).
 
-During the first phase of Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are
+During the first phase of the Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are
 already significant, and it is possible that the presence of several
 C-Group features is evidence of important contacts between Upper and
 Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase, exchanges decline, a sign of a
@@ -361,7 +374,7 @@ covered with inscriptions, relates the story of his three journeys to
 Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II, around 2250
 BC. These were obviously expeditions aimed at reopening trade routes by
 making contact and trading with the Nubian populations located south of
-the 2^nd^ cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations
+the 2nd cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations
 or tribes populate Nubia and do not necessarily maintain peaceful
 relations between them[^46]. These groups are already hierarchical with
 dominant personalities capable of gathering armed men in quantity,
@@ -390,32 +403,32 @@ and attracted populations from its kingdom to settle in the region.
 # Bibliography
 
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-de 1980-1981 et 1981-1982", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles
+de 1980-1981 et 1981-1982." In: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles
 archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan), *Genava, n.s.,* 30 (1982): pp. 1-25.
 
 Bonnet, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes
-de 1982-1983 et 1983-1984", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles
+de 1982-1983 et 1983-1984." In: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles
 archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan), *Genava, n.s.,* 32 (1984): pp. 5-42.
 
 Bonnet, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes
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+Paris: Errance, 2000.
 
-Bonnet, Charles., Honegger, Matthieu. "The
+Bonnet, Charles and Matthieu Honegger. "The
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