matic and hon

content/article/urosmatic.md

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 ---
 title: "Gender as Frame of War in Ancient Nubia"
 authors: ["urosmatic.md"]
-abstract: Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8th century BCE to 4th century CE). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the second and first millennium BCE. Such a frame of war was based on a gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and weak. It “naturalized” Kushite domination over their enemies just as it “naturalized” male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power."
+abstract: Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8th century BCE to 4th century CE). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the second and first millennium BCE. Such a frame of war was based on a gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and weak. It “naturalized” Kushite domination over their enemies just as it “naturalized” male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power.
 keywords: ["ancient Nubia", "war", "violence", "gender", "women", "children"]
 ---
 
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ imprisoned during war in ancient Nubia. Although the practice surely
 must have been older, the first textual attestations come from the reign
 of Taharqa (690-664 BC), and continue until the Meroitic period. The
 mentioning of men, women, and children as prisoners of war is mostly
-part of the lists of spoils of war. Since there is no place in this
+part of the lists of spoils of war. Since there is no space in this
 paper to thoroughly analyze these lists and present them in a systematic
 manner, I will concentrate only on prisoners of war, and especially on
 women and children, since they are often entirely neglected.[^20]
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ to ethnonyms or toponyms, can be found in his long inscription from
 Sanam.[^24]
 
 On the Enthronement stela of Anlamani (late 7th century BC) from Kawa
-(Kawa VIII, lines 19-20, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Æ.I.N. 1709)
+(Kawa VIII, lines 19-20, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Æ.I.N. 1709),
 it is stated that his soldiers gained control of all the women,
 children, small cattle and property in the land Bulahau
 (*b-w-r3-h-3-y-w*) and that the king appointed the captives as male and
@@ -261,12 +261,12 @@ realm of the Kushite kingdom.
 Hinkel has already concluded that the north wall of M250 depicts women
 and children taken by the Meroites in their raid of the First Cataract,
 as reported by Strabo in *Geography* (17. I. 54),[^52], and that the
-south wall depicts a conflict with some southern population that the
+south wall depicts a conflict with some population that the
 Meroites encountered in Lower Nubia.[^53] However, if Meroe is
 understood as the centre of the axis, then the enemies depicted on the
 southern wall are unlikely to depict Lower Nubians. We know that during the
 last decades of the 1st century BC Lower Nubia was not hostile to
-Meroe, but on contrary, that it rebelled against Rome. Gaius
+Meroe, but on the contrary, that it rebelled against Rome. Gaius
 Cornelius Gallus reports in his trilingual stela from Philae, erected in
 29 BC, that he placed a local tyrant to govern Triakontaschoinos (Lower
 Nubia), which became part of the province of Egypt and established a
@@ -338,11 +338,11 @@ found *in situ*, but rather in the vicinity of the south wall. Some of
 them can be joined and some of these joints present evidence for at
 least two registers. In one case, the upper register of the two depicts
 both women and children as prisoners of war, while the lower register
-depicts ship-fragments 198, 322, 323, 319 and 190.[^63] The figures in
+depicts ship-fragments 198, 322, 323, 319, and 190.[^63] The figures in
 the two registers are differently oriented. Additionally, one more boat
 representation with a head of a ram possibly indicates a relation to
 Amun (fragments 113 and 106).[^64] It is oriented in the same direction
-as the previous boat. On the blocks of the south wall both men and
+as the previous boat. On the blocks of the south wall, both men and
 women are depicted as prisoners of war next to children (Figure 2).
 
 ![Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250](../static/images/matic/fig2.jpg "Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250")
@@ -560,7 +560,7 @@ The Meroitic case is interesting precisely because certain royal women
 can be depicted smiting and spearing male enemies. Amanishakheto (1st
 century AD) is depicted spearing enemies on the pylon of her pyramid
 Begrawiya North 6 in Meroe, both to the left and right of the pylon
-entrance (Figure 4). On the left, she holds a bow, arrow and rope 
+entrance (Figure 4). On the left, she holds a bow, arrow, and rope 
 in her left hand and a spear in her right hand. The rope in her left
 hand extends to the necks of the enemies to which it is tied. Seven
 enemies are depicted with rope tied around their necks and with their
@@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ Gender as a frame of war has structured both Napatan and Meroitic texts,
 from lists enumerating the spoils of war to texts dealing with military
 campaigns. In the first case, this is observable in the order that
 different categories of prisoners of war are listed, namely enemy rulers
-(men), then enemy men, women and children. This same structure for
+(men), then enemy men, women, and children. This same structure for
 prisoners of wars is found with only slight differences in ancient
 Egyptian spoils of war examples,[^110] which can hardly be taken as a coincidence.
 Since the earlier Napatan texts were written in Egyptian, their
@@ -724,7 +724,7 @@ AD, vols. I-- III*. Bergen: University of Bergen, 1994-1998.
 
 Burstein, Stanley. "The Nubian Slave Trade in Antiquity: A Suggestion."
 In *Graeco-Africana: Studies in the History of Greek Relations with
-Egypt and Nubia by Stanley Burstein*. New Rochelle: Caratzas, 1994: pp.
+Egypt and Nubia*. New Rochelle, NY, Athens & Moscow: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1995: pp.
 195--205
 
 Butler, Judith. *Frames of War. When is Life Grievable?*
@@ -800,7 +800,7 @@ Speaks the Goddess's Language? Imagination and Method in Archaeological
 Research." *Norwegian Archaeological Review* 28.2 (1995): pp. 105--121.
 
 Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of bronze and
-expressions of masculinity: the emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in
+expressions of masculinity: The emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in
 Sudan" *Antiquity* 87 (2013): pp. 79--91.
 
 el Hawary, Amr. *Wortschöpfung*, *Die Memphitische
@@ -869,7 +869,7 @@ ideology of royal women." *Journal of the American Research Center in
 Egypt* 38 (2001): pp. 61--76.
 
 Lohwasser, Angelika. "Kush and her Neighbours beyond the
-Nile Valley In The Fourth Cataract and Beyond." In *Proceedings of the
+Nile Valley." In *The Fourth Cataract and Beyond. Proceedings of the
 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies. British Museum
 Publications on Egypt and Sudan 1*, edited by Julie R. Anderson and
 Derek A. Welsby, pp. 125--134. Leuven: Peeters, 2014.
@@ -908,8 +908,7 @@ University in Prague, Faculty of Arts, 2015.
 Matić, Uroš. "The best of the booty of His Majesty:
 Evidence for foreign child labor in New Kingdom Egypt." In *Global
 Egyptology. Negotiations in the Production of Knowledges on Ancient
-Egypt in Global Contexts.* Golden House Publications Egyptology 26.
-edited by Christian Langer, pp.
+Egypt in Global Contexts*, edited by Christian Langer, pp.
 53--63. London: Golden House Publications, 2017.
 
 Matić, Uroš. "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and
@@ -944,7 +943,7 @@ London and New York: Routledge, 2021.
 McCoskey, Denise Eileen. "Gender at the crossroads of
 empire: locating women in Strabo's Geography." In *Strabo's Cultural
 Geography: The Making of a Kolossourgia*, edited by Daniela
-Dueck, Hugh Lindsay and Sarah
+Dueck, Hugh Lindsay, and Sarah
 Pothecary, pp. 56--72. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
 
 Minas-Nerpel, Martina and Stefan Pfeiffer.
@@ -968,7 +967,7 @@ Lands*. Encounters with Ancient Egypt, edited by David
 O'Connor and Stephen Quirke, pp. 1--22. London and New
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-Parkinson, Richard B. "Homosexual' desire and Middle Kingdom
+Parkinson, Richard B. "'Homosexual' desire and Middle Kingdom
 literature." *Journal of Egyptian Archaeology* 81 (1995): pp. 57--76.
 
 Perry, Elizabeth P. and Rosemary A. Joyce.
@@ -977,7 +976,7 @@ archaeology of gender." *International Journal of Sexuality and Gender
 Studies* 6.1 (2001): pp. 63--76.
 
 Peust, Carsten. *Das Napatanische. Ein ägyptischer Dialekt
-aus dem Nubien des späten ersten vorchristilcihen Jahrtausends. Texte,
+aus dem Nubien des späten ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends. Texte,
 Glossar, Grammatik*. Monographien zur Ägyptischen Sprache 3. Göttingen:
 Peust & Gutschmidt Verlag, 1999
 
@@ -1014,12 +1013,12 @@ http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/meroe2008/abstracts/Abstract%20Rilly.pdf
 
 Rilly, Claude. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." In
 *Königsstadt Naga. Grabungen in der Wüste des Sudan*, edited by Karla
-Kröper, Sylvia Schoske and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches
+Kröper, Sylvia Schoske, and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches
 Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, 2011.
 
 Rilly, Claude. "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of the
 War Between Rome and Meroe." *13th Conference for Nubian Studies, Sep
-2014, Neuchâtel, Switzerland*, abstract. 2014
+2014, Neuchâtel, Switzerland*. Abstract. 2014
 
 Rilly, Claude and De Voogt, Alex. *The
 Meroitic Language and Writing System*. Cambridge: Cambridge University
@@ -1047,7 +1046,7 @@ Spalinger, Anthony J. *The Persistence of Memory in Kush.
 Pianchy and His Temple*. Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University,
 2019.
 
-Spalinger, Anthony J. *Leadership under fire: thre
+Spalinger, Anthony J. *Leadership under fire: The
 pressures of warfare in Ancient Egypt. Four leçons at the Collège de
 France. Paris, June 2019*. Paris: Soleb, 2020.
 
@@ -1088,7 +1087,7 @@ Williamson, Jacquelyn. "Alone before the God: Gender,
 Status, and Nefertiti's Image." *Journal of the American Research Center
 in Egypt* 51 (2015): pp. 179--192.
 
-Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard and Pamela J.
+Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard, and Pamela J.
 Rose. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim,
 Egypt." *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64--78.
 
@@ -1099,7 +1098,7 @@ York: Brooklyn Museum, 1978.
 Wöß, Florian. "The Representations of Captives and Enemies
 in Meroitic Art." In *The Kushite World. Proceedings of the 11th
 International Conference for Meroitic Studies, Vienna, 1-4 September
-2008*. Beiträre zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna:
+2008*. Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna:
 Verein der. Förderer der Sudanforschung, 2015.
 
 Zach, Michael H. "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM