From 34d2756b769efd6ee0df8bf5d4a5b751e5d377fa Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alexandros Tsakos Date: Tue, 3 Jan 2023 17:01:06 +0100 Subject: [PATCH] matic and hon --- content/article/urosmatic.md | 43 ++++++++++++++++++------------------ 1 file changed, 21 insertions(+), 22 deletions(-) diff --git a/content/article/urosmatic.md b/content/article/urosmatic.md index 7efd4bd..b934fd3 100644 --- a/content/article/urosmatic.md +++ b/content/article/urosmatic.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- title: "Gender as Frame of War in Ancient Nubia" authors: ["urosmatic.md"] -abstract: Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8th century BCE to 4th century CE). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the second and first millennium BCE. Such a frame of war was based on a gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and weak. It “naturalized” Kushite domination over their enemies just as it “naturalized” male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power." +abstract: Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8th century BCE to 4th century CE). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the second and first millennium BCE. Such a frame of war was based on a gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and weak. It “naturalized” Kushite domination over their enemies just as it “naturalized” male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power. keywords: ["ancient Nubia", "war", "violence", "gender", "women", "children"] --- @@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ imprisoned during war in ancient Nubia. Although the practice surely must have been older, the first textual attestations come from the reign of Taharqa (690-664 BC), and continue until the Meroitic period. The mentioning of men, women, and children as prisoners of war is mostly -part of the lists of spoils of war. Since there is no place in this +part of the lists of spoils of war. Since there is no space in this paper to thoroughly analyze these lists and present them in a systematic manner, I will concentrate only on prisoners of war, and especially on women and children, since they are often entirely neglected.[^20] @@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ to ethnonyms or toponyms, can be found in his long inscription from Sanam.[^24] On the Enthronement stela of Anlamani (late 7th century BC) from Kawa -(Kawa VIII, lines 19-20, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Æ.I.N. 1709) +(Kawa VIII, lines 19-20, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Æ.I.N. 1709), it is stated that his soldiers gained control of all the women, children, small cattle and property in the land Bulahau (*b-w-r3-h-3-y-w*) and that the king appointed the captives as male and @@ -261,12 +261,12 @@ realm of the Kushite kingdom. Hinkel has already concluded that the north wall of M250 depicts women and children taken by the Meroites in their raid of the First Cataract, as reported by Strabo in *Geography* (17. I. 54),[^52], and that the -south wall depicts a conflict with some southern population that the +south wall depicts a conflict with some population that the Meroites encountered in Lower Nubia.[^53] However, if Meroe is understood as the centre of the axis, then the enemies depicted on the southern wall are unlikely to depict Lower Nubians. We know that during the last decades of the 1st century BC Lower Nubia was not hostile to -Meroe, but on contrary, that it rebelled against Rome. Gaius +Meroe, but on the contrary, that it rebelled against Rome. Gaius Cornelius Gallus reports in his trilingual stela from Philae, erected in 29 BC, that he placed a local tyrant to govern Triakontaschoinos (Lower Nubia), which became part of the province of Egypt and established a @@ -338,11 +338,11 @@ found *in situ*, but rather in the vicinity of the south wall. Some of them can be joined and some of these joints present evidence for at least two registers. In one case, the upper register of the two depicts both women and children as prisoners of war, while the lower register -depicts ship-fragments 198, 322, 323, 319 and 190.[^63] The figures in +depicts ship-fragments 198, 322, 323, 319, and 190.[^63] The figures in the two registers are differently oriented. Additionally, one more boat representation with a head of a ram possibly indicates a relation to Amun (fragments 113 and 106).[^64] It is oriented in the same direction -as the previous boat. On the blocks of the south wall both men and +as the previous boat. On the blocks of the south wall, both men and women are depicted as prisoners of war next to children (Figure 2). ![Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250](../static/images/matic/fig2.jpg "Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250") @@ -560,7 +560,7 @@ The Meroitic case is interesting precisely because certain royal women can be depicted smiting and spearing male enemies. Amanishakheto (1st century AD) is depicted spearing enemies on the pylon of her pyramid Begrawiya North 6 in Meroe, both to the left and right of the pylon -entrance (Figure 4). On the left, she holds a bow, arrow and rope +entrance (Figure 4). On the left, she holds a bow, arrow, and rope in her left hand and a spear in her right hand. The rope in her left hand extends to the necks of the enemies to which it is tied. Seven enemies are depicted with rope tied around their necks and with their @@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ Gender as a frame of war has structured both Napatan and Meroitic texts, from lists enumerating the spoils of war to texts dealing with military campaigns. In the first case, this is observable in the order that different categories of prisoners of war are listed, namely enemy rulers -(men), then enemy men, women and children. This same structure for +(men), then enemy men, women, and children. This same structure for prisoners of wars is found with only slight differences in ancient Egyptian spoils of war examples,[^110] which can hardly be taken as a coincidence. Since the earlier Napatan texts were written in Egyptian, their @@ -724,7 +724,7 @@ AD, vols. I-- III*. Bergen: University of Bergen, 1994-1998. Burstein, Stanley. "The Nubian Slave Trade in Antiquity: A Suggestion." In *Graeco-Africana: Studies in the History of Greek Relations with -Egypt and Nubia by Stanley Burstein*. New Rochelle: Caratzas, 1994: pp. +Egypt and Nubia*. New Rochelle, NY, Athens & Moscow: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1995: pp. 195--205 Butler, Judith. *Frames of War. When is Life Grievable?* @@ -800,7 +800,7 @@ Speaks the Goddess's Language? Imagination and Method in Archaeological Research." *Norwegian Archaeological Review* 28.2 (1995): pp. 105--121. Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of bronze and -expressions of masculinity: the emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in +expressions of masculinity: The emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan" *Antiquity* 87 (2013): pp. 79--91. el Hawary, Amr. *Wortschöpfung*, *Die Memphitische @@ -869,7 +869,7 @@ ideology of royal women." *Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt* 38 (2001): pp. 61--76. Lohwasser, Angelika. "Kush and her Neighbours beyond the -Nile Valley In The Fourth Cataract and Beyond." In *Proceedings of the +Nile Valley." In *The Fourth Cataract and Beyond. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies. British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan 1*, edited by Julie R. Anderson and Derek A. Welsby, pp. 125--134. Leuven: Peeters, 2014. @@ -908,8 +908,7 @@ University in Prague, Faculty of Arts, 2015. Matić, Uroš. "The best of the booty of His Majesty: Evidence for foreign child labor in New Kingdom Egypt." In *Global Egyptology. Negotiations in the Production of Knowledges on Ancient -Egypt in Global Contexts.* Golden House Publications Egyptology 26. -edited by Christian Langer, pp. +Egypt in Global Contexts*, edited by Christian Langer, pp. 53--63. London: Golden House Publications, 2017. Matić, Uroš. "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and @@ -944,7 +943,7 @@ London and New York: Routledge, 2021. McCoskey, Denise Eileen. "Gender at the crossroads of empire: locating women in Strabo's Geography." In *Strabo's Cultural Geography: The Making of a Kolossourgia*, edited by Daniela -Dueck, Hugh Lindsay and Sarah +Dueck, Hugh Lindsay, and Sarah Pothecary, pp. 56--72. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Minas-Nerpel, Martina and Stefan Pfeiffer. @@ -968,7 +967,7 @@ Lands*. Encounters with Ancient Egypt, edited by David O'Connor and Stephen Quirke, pp. 1--22. London and New York: Routledge, 2011. -Parkinson, Richard B. "Homosexual' desire and Middle Kingdom +Parkinson, Richard B. "'Homosexual' desire and Middle Kingdom literature." *Journal of Egyptian Archaeology* 81 (1995): pp. 57--76. Perry, Elizabeth P. and Rosemary A. Joyce. @@ -977,7 +976,7 @@ archaeology of gender." *International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies* 6.1 (2001): pp. 63--76. Peust, Carsten. *Das Napatanische. Ein ägyptischer Dialekt -aus dem Nubien des späten ersten vorchristilcihen Jahrtausends. Texte, +aus dem Nubien des späten ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends. Texte, Glossar, Grammatik*. Monographien zur Ägyptischen Sprache 3. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt Verlag, 1999 @@ -1014,12 +1013,12 @@ http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/meroe2008/abstracts/Abstract%20Rilly.pdf Rilly, Claude. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." In *Königsstadt Naga. Grabungen in der Wüste des Sudan*, edited by Karla -Kröper, Sylvia Schoske and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches +Kröper, Sylvia Schoske, and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, 2011. Rilly, Claude. "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of the War Between Rome and Meroe." *13th Conference for Nubian Studies, Sep -2014, Neuchâtel, Switzerland*, abstract. 2014 +2014, Neuchâtel, Switzerland*. Abstract. 2014 Rilly, Claude and De Voogt, Alex. *The Meroitic Language and Writing System*. Cambridge: Cambridge University @@ -1047,7 +1046,7 @@ Spalinger, Anthony J. *The Persistence of Memory in Kush. Pianchy and His Temple*. Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 2019. -Spalinger, Anthony J. *Leadership under fire: thre +Spalinger, Anthony J. *Leadership under fire: The pressures of warfare in Ancient Egypt. Four leçons at the Collège de France. Paris, June 2019*. Paris: Soleb, 2020. @@ -1088,7 +1087,7 @@ Williamson, Jacquelyn. "Alone before the God: Gender, Status, and Nefertiti's Image." *Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt* 51 (2015): pp. 179--192. -Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard and Pamela J. +Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard, and Pamela J. Rose. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, Egypt." *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64--78. @@ -1099,7 +1098,7 @@ York: Brooklyn Museum, 1978. Wöß, Florian. "The Representations of Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art." In *The Kushite World. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Meroitic Studies, Vienna, 1-4 September -2008*. Beiträre zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna: +2008*. Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna: Verein der. Förderer der Sudanforschung, 2015. Zach, Michael H. "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM