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@ -178,9 +178,9 @@ how Nubians are perceived by non-Nubian Egyptians eroding the cultural,
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social, and global identity of all Egyptian citizens. Participant 18, a
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thirty-year-old female, stated that she felt the brunt of the media's
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negative indexes and experienced racist and teasing responses while at
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school.
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school.[^12]
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Taha,[^12] a Nubian applied linguistic researcher, asserts that media in
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The present author,[^13] a Nubian applied linguistic researcher, asserts that media in
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Egypt has played a significant role in perpetuating negative
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stereotypes, such as depicting Nubians as speaking incomprehensible
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Arabic and occupying lower-class jobs. The case of Nubians\' portrayal
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@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ Media influence people and their beliefs; conversely, the media itself
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is being influenced by several social, political, economic, and social
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values. Particular ideologies are propagated in the media industry and
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these values or agendas are carefully chosen and play a crucial
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influential role in public discourse. Fairclough,[^13] an emeritus
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influential role in public discourse. Fairclough,[^14] an emeritus
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linguist and pioneer in Critical Discourse Analysis, asserts that "media
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output is very much under professional and institutional control, and in
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general it is those who already have other forms of economic, political
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@ -205,7 +205,7 @@ words, the media industry is controlled by certain institutions that
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have political, cultural, and economic power and immense influence.
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According to Fairclough, the media is a powerful tool that can shape
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government and parties, and influence "knowledge, belief, values, social
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relations, and social identities."[^14] Thus, the media reflects our
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relations, and social identities."[^15] Thus, the media reflects our
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societal and cultural values and ideologies.
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# Data
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@ -248,14 +248,14 @@ thus reinforcing stereotypes and maintaining the status quo of social
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inequality. This analysis highlights the role of media in shaping
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perceptions and sustaining social hierarchies.
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Ochs,[^15] a linguistic anthropologist, views indexicality as a spoken
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Ochs,[^16] a linguistic anthropologist, views indexicality as a spoken
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property through which socio-cultural contexts (such as gender) and
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social activities (such as gossip) are formed by taking particular
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stances that are indexed through the language chosen. In other words,
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indexicality is interpreted in light of the semiotic associations
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between linguistic forms, social meanings, and identities. Ochs
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identifies two types of indexicality, direct and indirect, and each
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performs different functions in discourse. According to Ochs,[^16] direct
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performs different functions in discourse. According to Ochs,[^17] direct
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indexicality refers to interactional stances, including evaluative
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stances, while indirect indexicality points to social stances.
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@ -263,13 +263,13 @@ Among those who refer to an index as contextualization cues are Hughes
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and Tracy, discourse analysts, emphasizing that signaling context and
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reinforcing pragmatic signs are crucial for effective communication.
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They define indexicality as "the function by which linguistic and
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nonlinguistic signs point to aspects of context."[^17] According to
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nonlinguistic signs point to aspects of context."[^18] According to
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Hughes and Tracy, indexicality is closely related to deixis and they could even be
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"sometimes interchangeable," but they consider deixis to be a specific
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type of indexicality, which helps participants navigate the oral or
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written discourse frame through understanding references. Indexical and
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cultural contextual cues are essential to properly interpret inferences
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and understand the ideologies behind them Johnstone et al.,[^18] a group
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and understand the ideologies behind them Johnstone et al.,[^19] a group
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of linguists, categorize indexes into two types; referential and
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non-referential. On the one hand, referential indexes include pronouns
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and demonstratives i.e., the term denotation is based on the utterance
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@ -278,7 +278,7 @@ that convey or construct social meaning. They consider 'social meaning'
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to be a "concept that encompasses matters such as register (in the
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narrow sense of situation appropriateness), stance (certainty,
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authority, etc.), and social identity (class, ethnicity, interactional
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role, etc.)"[^19] They also explain further that the relationship
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role, etc.)"[^20] They also explain further that the relationship
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between linguistic forms and social meanings can be manifested at
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different levels of indexicality order. They consider the first-order
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indexes as unnoticeable and unintentional because they are common among
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@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ In his seminal work, Silverstein, a leading linguistic anthropologist,
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explores the order of indexicality, distinguishing between first and
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second-order indexes. He notes that the second- order indexes are
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"creative or effective" and potentially can have ethno-metapragmatically
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driven interpretation.[^20] This interpretation allows speakers to not
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driven interpretation.[^21] This interpretation allows speakers to not
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only presuppose meanings based on existing social structures or
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stereotypes, but also to actively reshape and reinforce these meanings
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in dynamic, context-specific ways. In other words, the presupposed
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@ -322,7 +322,7 @@ from unnoticed linguistic markers to socially meaningful symbols is
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central to how media perpetuates harmful stereotypes and embeds them
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into the cultural imagination.
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Eckert,[^21] a prominent sociolinguist, emphasizes the close connection
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Eckert,[^22] a prominent sociolinguist, emphasizes the close connection
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between speakers' ideologies and stylistic practices (both linguistic
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and non-linguistic) utilized to construct worldwide views and social
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meanings. I argue that the stylistic choices---such as dark skin
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@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ with other lead characters enjoying his Arabic and Nubian songs. In
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episode 12 of the 'Friends' soap opera, the show featured a pretend
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Nubian wedding as a performance for tourists, intended to promote one of
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the lead characters' businesses by highlighting the cultural diversity
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of Egyptians and showcasing a unique authentic tradition.[^22] Overall,
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of Egyptians and showcasing a unique authentic tradition.[^23] Overall,
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two of the main characters spoke very highly of Nubians, expressing
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respect and appreciation for both the people and their culture.
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@ -403,7 +403,7 @@ boats, and musical instruments. These elements offer a rich and genuine
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portrayal of Nubian heritage. For instance, episode 5 poignantly depicts
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the forced relocation of Nubians from their homeland villages, with
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characters dressed in traditional Nubian clothing, sorrowfully leaving
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their own homes.[^23] This scene tries to emphasize both the cultural
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their own homes.[^24] This scene tries to emphasize both the cultural
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and historical significance of the events, providing a glimpse into the
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struggles and resilience of the Nubian people, while grounding the
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narrative in real experiences and traditions.
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@ -416,7 +416,7 @@ tricked with intelligibility issues or disabilities. The names of the
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characters are mainly *Othman*, *Idris, or Seliman*. In the *il-fa:nu:s
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ʔa-siħirj* 'The Magic Lantern,' a Nubian waiter fails to recognize that
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two pretend waiters, who are trying to retrieve magic lanterns, are not
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Nubians.[^24] The two characters who only used a single word in Nubian
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Nubians.[^25] The two characters who only used a single word in Nubian
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*maskagna* 'hello,' then make totally random sounds that do not belong
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to any language whatsoever. When asked if he understood the other two
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waiters, the Nubian waiter explains "I am not a fool, they are not from
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@ -441,7 +441,7 @@ character and his family. Shockingly, some of these discriminatory
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remarks come from the character himself, who is impersonating a Nubian
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man in blackface. In one particularly offensive scene, the actor Ramez
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Galal addresses the Nubian character, saying, "Come on, you don't want
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your heart to be black, just like your face."[^25] This film contains
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your heart to be black, just like your face."[^26] This film contains
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numerous racist and discriminatory indexes, perpetuating harmful
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stereotypes
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@ -455,15 +455,15 @@ law*ʔula: mabinħibʃ* 'We'd Be Lying to Say We Didn't Love,' streamed on
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TV in 2013, a major female actress, Ragaa Al-Giddawy, refers to the
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Nubian male character and his family as "barbarians" saying "Listen, I
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won't let you marry my daughter unless you bring all your barbarian
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folks right here to ask for her hand in marriage."[^26] In another soap
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folks right here to ask for her hand in marriage."[^27] In another soap
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opera *ħuru:f ilnas<sup>ʕ</sup>b* 'Letters of Fraud', released in 2000, the actor
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Hisham Selim impersonates a Nubian by wearing waiter apparel, darkening
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his face, and referring to himself as "Othman Abdel El-basset, the one
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Egyptian barbarian."[^27] In a movie produced in 1998 *s<sup>ʕ</sup>eʕidi fi
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Egyptian barbarian."[^28] In a movie produced in 1998 *s<sup>ʕ</sup>eʕidi fi
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ilgamʕa ilamerikja* 'An upper-Egyptian at the American University of
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Cairo', the actor Mohamed Henedi, tells a minor Nubian female character
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"No need to turn the light off. I cannot see your face already. Your
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face is as dark as the night."[^28]
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face is as dark as the night."[^29]
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These examples highlight how media productions reinforce and perpetuate
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negative stereotypes about Nubians through both visual and literary
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@ -496,9 +496,9 @@ resources of Nubian characters focusing on the stigmatized linguistic
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and pronunciation errors portrayed and derived from movies and soap
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operas. In particular, I analyze several examples of stereotypical
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language errors produced by characters portraying Nubians in movies and
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cartoons.[^29]
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cartoons.[^30]
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## Actor Ali Kassar[^30]
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## Actor Ali Kassar[^31]
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**~~Example 1. Gender confusion.~~**
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@ -506,11 +506,11 @@ cartoons.[^29]
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In example 1a, a Nubian character is talking to a female character in
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Arabic, but he mistakenly addresses her using a masculine possessive
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form, which indicates that his Arabic is poor.[^31] Similarly, in
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form, which indicates that his Arabic is poor.[^32] Similarly, in
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example 1b the Nubian character shows his lack of accuracy by using a
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feminine demonstrative with a masculine noun which is ungrammatical.
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## Actors Gomaa Edriss and Ali Oraby[^32]
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## Actors Gomaa Edriss and Ali Oraby[^33]
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**~~Example 2. Pronunciation error.~~**
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@ -528,7 +528,7 @@ singular form, rather than a plural form. Examples 2c and 2d are
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ungrammatical as the Nubian character uses plural and third person
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masculine forms, respectively, when he refers to himself.
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## Actor Sayed Sulieman[^33]
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## Actor Sayed Sulieman[^34]
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**~~Example 3. Gender confusion.~~**
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@ -543,7 +543,7 @@ there is gender disagreement.
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The following examples show the gender disagreement between determiners,
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quantifiers, and possessive markers and their modified nouns.
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## Actor Ali Oraby[^34]
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## Actor Ali Oraby[^35]
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**~~Example 4. Disagreement between modifiers.~~**
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@ -558,7 +558,7 @@ does not agree with the feminine noun. In a similar way, the Nubian
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character uses masculine possessive markers when talking to his sister,
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rather than the feminine using possessive markers *bita:ʕek* 'your'.
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## Actor Mohamed El Adendani[^35]
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## Actor Mohamed El Adendani[^36]
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**~~Example 5. Noun-verb disagreement.~~**
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@ -585,7 +585,7 @@ look for job opportunities had some language difficulties when learning
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Arabic due to the influence of their mother tongue. For example,
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Rouchdy, a linguistic researcher, noted in her research study in 1991,
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that non-competent Fadija bilingual speakers had a tendency to add the
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suffix -a to borrowed Arabic words such as *aneeda* 'stubborn.'[^36]
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suffix -a to borrowed Arabic words such as *aneeda* 'stubborn.'[^37]
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Nevertheless, do Nubians, considering all the generations that have
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emerged since the early relocations because of the Aswan Dam construction in
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@ -650,6 +650,10 @@ with Fadija Nobiin speakers to show how they perceive the negative
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indexes attributed to themselves and the Nubian language in the Egyptian
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media.
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**~~Figure 2. An example of the pictures shown to the participants to start the discussion. The image depicts two characters — Ismail Yassine on the right and Abdel Ghani El Nagdi on the left — who painted their faces black to impersonate Nubians. Source: Ilfa:nu:s ʔa-siħirj ‘The Magic Lantern’ (1960).~~**
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# Discussion: Results and findings summary
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To analyze the discussion data, I coded the discussion data and then
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@ -678,7 +682,7 @@ On the other hand, Dr. Mohammad Ali-Bik asserts that media makers
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consistently presented a stereotypical exaggerated image of Nubians
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portrayed as less sophisticated and naïve, even though, in reality, they
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are recognized within the Egyptian society for their honesty and
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straightforwardness.[^37] He further stated that Egyptian media has
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straightforwardness.[^38] He further stated that Egyptian media has
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marginalized Nubians in many ways, including associating them with
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exaggerated negative portrayals, and primarily depicting them in
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low-income jobs such as doorkeepers and workers in houses, hotels, and
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@ -789,14 +793,14 @@ and cultures. Several recently produced documentaries about Nubians are
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available on YouTube, covering topics like food, the Nile River
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sacredness, handicrafts, weddings, homescapes, and customs.
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Notable examples include *aj-ga ʤilli* 'Remember me',[^38] uploaded in
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2011 and *Sono* 'roots' in 2020,[^39] both of them offering viewers a
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Notable examples include *aj-ga ʤilli* 'Remember me',[^39] uploaded in
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2011 and *Sono* 'roots' in 2020,[^40] both of them offering viewers a
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more accurate and respectful look at the richness of Nubian culture.
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## Depictions of Nubians in documentary movies
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Similarly, music video clips have an essential and promising role in
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maintaining the Nubian language and cultural heritage.[^40] These music
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maintaining the Nubian language and cultural heritage.[^41] These music
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videos are also accessible on YouTube and discuss vital issues such as
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migration, relocation, family bonds, solidarity, religion, and other
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inspirational themes. Figure 7 presents question five discussion
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@ -858,7 +862,7 @@ Nubian customs and home lifestyles.
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In an interview with the Egyptian pop singer, Eyre asked Mounir about
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his Nubian roots and history during his lifetime.[^41] In responding to
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his Nubian roots and history during his lifetime.[^42] In responding to
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this question, Mounir asserts that he does not
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> understand why the words \"Nubia\" and \"Nubian\" have become such a
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@ -1072,7 +1076,7 @@ established by and for Nubians, aimed at promoting their culture and
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heritage while reviving their language.
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Among the YouTube social forums are "Nub Tube" and "I and "Nuba
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Channel."[^42] Through these initiatives, Nubians are creating a
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Channel."[^43] Through these initiatives, Nubians are creating a
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positive stance, emphasizing their identities, their language and
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cultural values, and their true characteristics and traits. By refusing
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to accept stereotypes and negative indexes, they leverage these
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@ -1098,7 +1102,7 @@ Nubians and non-Nubians who appreciate and admire the Nubian language
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and culture actively challenge negative stereotypes by voicing their
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opinions, condemning such biases, and creating platforms that
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authentically represent their identity and heritage. One example is the
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Art of Nubia website,[^43] which features a variety of sections
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Art of Nubia website,[^44] which features a variety of sections
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dedicated to the Nubian language, books about the language, proverbs and
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wisdom, courses and lessons, songs, history, Nubian literature, dance,
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and weddings. This impressive initiative was founded and is maintained
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@ -1114,7 +1118,7 @@ ethical values, and simplicity". Through this initiative, she hopes to
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raise awareness of this remarkable culture and combat racism and
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discrimination.
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Another example is the NAPATA website,[^44] which is currently
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Another example is the NAPATA website,[^45] which is currently
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undergoing redesign. Similar to the Art of Nubia, NAPATA provides
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information on Nubian poetry, music, language, history, and heritage. As
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a non-profit organization, NAPATA is dedicated to serving the needs of
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@ -1225,10 +1229,10 @@ them and elaborate on the target questions.
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How are Nubians represented in the cartoon? Do you believe that
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their representations are realistic?
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# Appendix 2: IPA transcription of Arabic[^45]
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# Appendix 2: IPA transcription of Arabic[^46]
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**~~~~**
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**~~Table with IPA transcription of Arabic.~~**
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# Bibliography
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@ -1317,63 +1321,65 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6, 1 (2019): pp. 113--48
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[^11]: Bassiouney, Constructing the Stereotype: Indexes and Performance
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of a Stigmatized local dialect in Egypt, p.3.
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[^12]: Taha, From Nub to Dahab: The Lexical Shift of Fadija Nobiin to
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[^12]: Detailed information about the participants and their backgrounds can be found in Table 1.
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[^13]: Taha, From Nub to Dahab: The Lexical Shift of Fadija Nobiin to
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Arabic in Egypt, p. 118.
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[^13]: Fairclough, Language and Globalization, p. 40.
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[^14]: Fairclough, Language and Globalization, p. 40.
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[^14]: Fairclough, Language and Globalization, p. 2.
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[^15]: Fairclough, Language and Globalization, p. 2.
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[^15]: Ochs, Indexing Gender.
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[^16]: Ochs, Indexing Gender.
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[^16]: Ibid.
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[^17]: Ibid.
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[^17]: Hughes and Tracy, Indexicality, p. 1.
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[^18]: Hughes and Tracy, Indexicality, p. 1.
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[^18]: Johnstone et al., Mobility, Indexicality, and the Enregisterment
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[^19]: Johnstone et al., Mobility, Indexicality, and the Enregisterment
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of 'Pittsburghese'.
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[^19]: PAGE NUMBERS
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[^20]: PAGE NUMBERS
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[^20]: Silverstein, Indexical order and the Dialectics of
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[^21]: Silverstein, Indexical order and the Dialectics of
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Sociolinguistic Life, p. 194.
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[^21]: Eckert, Variation and the Indexical field.
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[^22]: Eckert, Variation and the Indexical field.
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[^22]: See
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[^23]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0EE24Pc02E
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(accessed May 2021).
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[^23]: See
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[^24]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYfif7sAnpw&list=PL4ZQAyKFoBc-GzgfgRN8M9HJe152WYJ9D&index=5
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[^24]: See
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[^25]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLW3gDcVzak
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(accessed in May 2021).
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[^25]: See
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[^26]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L7L8zMTxsYc
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(accessed in June 2020).
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[^26]: See
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[^27]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G-5gKXOkNQ
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(accessed May 2021).
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[^27]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctImkHHP9x4
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[^28]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctImkHHP9x4
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(accessed August 2021).
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[^28]: See
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[^29]: See
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_A90OVqQtSM
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(accessed September 2021).
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[^29]: Glossing abbreviations used in this paper: 1- first person; 2-
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[^30]: Glossing abbreviations used in this paper: 1- first person; 2-
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second person; 3- third person; IMP- imperative; PR- proper noun;
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DEM- demonstrative; PRS- present; PST- past; FUT- future marker; SG-
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singular; PL- plural; PREP- preposition; NEG- negation; WH.Q- WH
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question; Q- question particle; QUANT- quantifier ; PCP- participle;
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PM- possessive marker; M- masculine; F- feminine; VOC- vocative.
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[^30]: He was a non-Nubian Egyptian actor born in 1887. He was one the
|
||||
[^31]: He was a non-Nubian Egyptian actor born in 1887. He was one the
|
||||
earliest actor to stigmatize and grossly exaggerate Nubians in
|
||||
movies and plays. His style of portraying Nubians, that includes
|
||||
ridiculing their Arabic fluency and accuracy, is still used in
|
||||
|
|
@ -1381,20 +1387,20 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6, 1 (2019): pp. 113--48
|
|||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAPYImuAK_g
|
||||
(accessed June 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^31]: Arabic is a grammatically gendered language in which verbs,
|
||||
[^32]: Arabic is a grammatically gendered language in which verbs,
|
||||
nouns, and adjective always assign either a male or female case
|
||||
based on the person addressed. For example, nouns and adjectives or
|
||||
nouns have to agree in gender.
|
||||
|
||||
[^32]: See
|
||||
[^33]: See
|
||||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_18m7gWKQM
|
||||
(accessed July 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^33]: See
|
||||
[^34]: See
|
||||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLW3gDcVzak
|
||||
(accessed May 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^34]: See
|
||||
[^35]: See
|
||||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmgjwTZ6aRMfor
|
||||
4a;
|
||||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ryWp_nqybmI
|
||||
|
|
@ -1402,39 +1408,39 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6, 1 (2019): pp. 113--48
|
|||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZF8dncakq7k
|
||||
for 4c (accessed August 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^35]: See
|
||||
[^36]: See
|
||||
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixZ9YtVLU3Q
|
||||
(accessed September 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^36]: Rouchdy, *Nubians and the Nubian Language in Contemporary Egypt*,
|
||||
[^37]: Rouchdy, *Nubians and the Nubian Language in Contemporary Egypt*,
|
||||
p.27.
|
||||
|
||||
[^37]: I would like to thank my dear uncle Dr. Mohammad Ali-Bik, a
|
||||
[^38]: I would like to thank my dear uncle Dr. Mohammad Ali-Bik, a
|
||||
professor of Mineralogy and Geochemistry at the Department of
|
||||
Geological Sciences in the Egyptian National Research Center, for
|
||||
all his insights and feedback. I am also very grateful to all my
|
||||
family members and friends who helped me with the survey study.
|
||||
|
||||
[^38]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X5bm0m-2SA (accessed in September 2024).
|
||||
[^39]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X5bm0m-2SA (accessed in September 2024).
|
||||
|
||||
[^39]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AU0clu5ft-E (accessed in September 2021).
|
||||
[^40]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AU0clu5ft-E (accessed in September 2021).
|
||||
|
||||
[^40]: In this study, music video refers to video recorded or filmed
|
||||
[^41]: In this study, music video refers to video recorded or filmed
|
||||
performances usually accompanied by dancing, visual images, and
|
||||
musical instruments intended to promote and showcase artists and
|
||||
cultures and marketing for their albums.
|
||||
|
||||
[^41]: Afropop Worldwide interviewed Mohamed Mounir in July 2011 and
|
||||
[^42]: Afropop Worldwide interviewed Mohamed Mounir in July 2011 and
|
||||
published in April 2012. Banning Eyre and Sean Barlow wrote and
|
||||
conducted the radio broadcasted interview with Mounir discussing the
|
||||
Egyptian revolution.
|
||||
|
||||
[^42]: See https://www.youtube.com/%40NubaTubeChannel (accessed September 2021) and http://www.youtube.com/%40%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B77%D8%B9
|
||||
[^43]: See https://www.youtube.com/%40NubaTubeChannel (accessed September 2021) and http://www.youtube.com/%40%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B77%D8%B9
|
||||
(accessed September 2021) respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
[^43]: https://artofnubia.com/index.html
|
||||
[^44]: https://artofnubia.com/index.html
|
||||
|
||||
[^44]: https://www.napata.org/language.html
|
||||
[^45]: https://www.napata.org/language.html
|
||||
|
||||
[^45]: Appendix 2 provides a description of the Arabic IPA Arabic sounds
|
||||
[^46]: Appendix 2 provides a description of the Arabic IPA Arabic sounds
|
||||
used in this paper.
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
Loading…
Add table
Reference in a new issue