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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ keywords: ["Egypt", "Nubians", "linguistics", "stigmatized", "indexicality", "id
# Introduction # Introduction
For generations, Nubians (both Fadija and Kenuz)[^1] have been For generations, Nubians (both Fadija and Kenuz[^1]) have been
stigmatized and ridiculed in the Egyptian media. Nubian speakers of the stigmatized and ridiculed in the Egyptian media. Nubian speakers of the
Fadija and Mattoki vernaculars in Egypt are associated with Fadija and Mattoki vernaculars in Egypt are associated with
unintelligible or incompetent Arabic, dark-skinned people, working unintelligible or incompetent Arabic, dark-skinned people, working
@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ emphasized by the media. These constant negative indexes have compelled
some Nubians to speak Arabic with their children to avoid mockery, some Nubians to speak Arabic with their children to avoid mockery,
prejudice, and discrimination. prejudice, and discrimination.
Despite the stigmatized portrayals, there are Nubian speakers that have Despite the stigmatized portrayals, there are Nubian speakers who have
a positive attitude to learn their mother tongues to preserve their a positive attitude towards learning their mother tongues to preserve their
languages, identities, and ideologies. The importance of learning Nubian languages, identities, and ideologies. The importance of learning Nubian
languages at home is essential for preserving not only linguistic languages at home is essential for preserving not only linguistic
diversity, but also the cultural and ideological foundations that are diversity, but also the cultural and ideological foundations that are
@ -77,15 +77,15 @@ Arabic, a skill that carries power and prestige in several domains such
as education, religion, and public media, cannot be denied. However, as education, religion, and public media, cannot be denied. However,
public awareness and counterstereotypes are urgently needed among public awareness and counterstereotypes are urgently needed among
Egyptians---Nubians, and non-Nubians---to construct positive stances Egyptians---Nubians, and non-Nubians---to construct positive stances
and provide authentic representations of the Nubian language and and provide fair and authentic representations of the Nubian language and
culture. culture.
# Background # Background
This paper adopts the analytical framework of Bassiouney,[^3] a This paper adopts the analytical framework of Bassiouney,[^3] a
distinguished sociolinguist and award-winning novelist, to examine the distinguished sociolinguist and award-winning novelist, to examine the
stereotypes of the stigmatized *Seʕidi*[^4] dialect (Arabic spoken in stereotypes of the stigmatized *Seʕidi* dialect (Arabic spoken in
the southern part of Egypt) in Egyptian media. The study explores how the southern part of Egypt[^4]) in Egyptian media. The study explores how
visual, linguistic, and literary resources are used by media producers visual, linguistic, and literary resources are used by media producers
to construct these portrayals. Inspired by Bassiouney's analysis, I to construct these portrayals. Inspired by Bassiouney's analysis, I
offer an analysis of the negative media portrayals of Nubians in Egypt offer an analysis of the negative media portrayals of Nubians in Egypt
@ -125,10 +125,10 @@ children or refrain from teaching their native Nubian language. Yet even
the Arabic of Nubian speakers is highly stigmatized and ridiculed due to the Arabic of Nubian speakers is highly stigmatized and ridiculed due to
the associated indexes utilized by media makers. However, there are the associated indexes utilized by media makers. However, there are
Nubians who take pride in speaking both Arabic and Nubian languages. Nubians who take pride in speaking both Arabic and Nubian languages.
Abou-Ras,[^6] a Nubian academic researcher, asserts that her Abou-Ras, a Nubian academic researcher, asserts that her
participants have positive attitudes towards both languages, yet they participants have positive attitudes towards both languages, yet they
favor learning and using Nubian because it is the mother or heritage favor learning and using Nubian because it is the mother or heritage
language. Additionally, there is widespread awareness among Nubians of language.[^6] Additionally, there is widespread awareness among Nubians of
the importance of maintaining and reviving their language. Several the importance of maintaining and reviving their language. Several
initiatives, including educational centers and YouTube channels, exist initiatives, including educational centers and YouTube channels, exist
to teach the Nubian language and highlight the culture. Just to name a to teach the Nubian language and highlight the culture. Just to name a
@ -151,11 +151,11 @@ misunderstandings, mockery, and discrimination. As Sánchez Macarro, a
linguist, puts it "as individuals, we are all influenced, our opinions linguist, puts it "as individuals, we are all influenced, our opinions
shaped, reinforced and altered by our exposure to the media."[^9] shaped, reinforced and altered by our exposure to the media."[^9]
In describing the media discourse, O\'Keeffe,[^10] a notable applied In describing the media discourse, O\'Keeffe, a notable applied
linguist, characterizes it as a "public, manufactured, on-record, form linguist, characterizes it as a "public, manufactured, on-record, form
of interaction. It is not ad hoc or spontaneous (in the same way as of interaction. It is not ad hoc or spontaneous (in the same way as
causal speaking or writing is); it is neither private nor off the causal speaking or writing is); it is neither private nor off the
record." The fact that media discourse is not spontaneous, but rather record."[^10] The fact that media discourse is not spontaneous, but rather
manufactured and purposefully chosen tells us that these negative images manufactured and purposefully chosen tells us that these negative images
of Nubians are not random; they reflect specific ideologies as well as of Nubians are not random; they reflect specific ideologies as well as
political and social stances. The fact that media production is public political and social stances. The fact that media production is public
@ -180,10 +180,10 @@ thirty-year-old female, stated that she felt the brunt of the media's
negative indexes and experienced racist and teasing responses while at negative indexes and experienced racist and teasing responses while at
school.[^12] school.[^12]
The present author,[^13] a Nubian applied linguistic researcher, asserts that media in The present author, a Nubian applied linguistic researcher, asserts that media in
Egypt has played a significant role in perpetuating negative Egypt has played a significant role in perpetuating negative
stereotypes, such as depicting Nubians as speaking incomprehensible stereotypes, such as depicting Nubians as speaking incomprehensible
Arabic and occupying lower-class jobs. The case of Nubians\' portrayal Arabic and occupying lower-class jobs.[^13] The case of Nubians\' portrayal
in the media is not only associated with fluency and job opportunities, in the media is not only associated with fluency and job opportunities,
but with direct insults and affronts. As Nobiin, I myself experienced but with direct insults and affronts. As Nobiin, I myself experienced
situations of mockery and teasing by non-Nubian classmates at schools in situations of mockery and teasing by non-Nubian classmates at schools in
@ -192,15 +192,15 @@ extensively used in soap operas when referring to Nubians. In addition
to the constant prevalent images of Nubian characters as backward, less to the constant prevalent images of Nubian characters as backward, less
sophisticated, naïve, and slow. sophisticated, naïve, and slow.
Media influence people and their beliefs; conversely, the media itself Media influences people and their beliefs; conversely, the media itself
is being influenced by several social, political, economic, and social is being influenced by several social, political, economic, and social
values. Particular ideologies are propagated in the media industry and values. Particular ideologies are propagated in the media industry and
these values or agendas are carefully chosen and play a crucial these values or agendas are carefully chosen and play a crucial
influential role in public discourse. Fairclough,[^14] an emeritus influential role in public discourse. Fairclough, an emeritus
linguist and pioneer in Critical Discourse Analysis, asserts that "media linguist and pioneer in Critical Discourse Analysis, asserts that "media
output is very much under professional and institutional control, and in output is very much under professional and institutional control, and in
general it is those who already have other forms of economic, political general it is those who already have other forms of economic, political
or cultural power that have the best access to the media." In other or cultural power that have the best access to the media."[^14] In other
words, the media industry is controlled by certain institutions that words, the media industry is controlled by certain institutions that
have political, cultural, and economic power and immense influence. have political, cultural, and economic power and immense influence.
According to Fairclough, the media is a powerful tool that can shape According to Fairclough, the media is a powerful tool that can shape
@ -210,22 +210,22 @@ societal and cultural values and ideologies.
# Data # Data
This article\'s data spans seventy years, including movies, soap operas, This article examines data spanning seventy years, including movies, soap operas,
cartoons, music videos, and documentary movies. Notably, many of the cartoons, music video clips, and documentary movies. Notably, many of the
documentaries have been filmed in peoples' homes. I posit that documentaries were filmed in peoples' homes, providing an intimate perspective on Nubian life. I posit that
producers utilize three resources to portray Nubians in movies and soap producers utilize three resources to portray Nubians in movies and soap
operas: linguistic resources, visual resources, and literary resources. operas: linguistic resources, visual resources, and literary resources.
The examples in this article are derived from well-known Egyptian movies The examples in this article are derived from well-known Egyptian movies
and the Bakkar cartoon (an Egyptian production by the Radio and and the *Bakkar* cartoon (an Egyptian production by the Radio and
Television Union, broadcast on Channel One, following the adventures of Television Union, broadcast on Channel One, following the adventures of
a young Nubian boy, his pet goat, and his friends) where stereotypical a young Nubian boy, his pet goat, and his friends) where stereotypical
linguistic errors pronounced by Nubian characters are prevalent. In linguistic errors pronounced by Nubian characters are prevalent. In
addition to analyzing the metalinguistic discourse in movies and addition to analyzing the metalinguistic discourse in movies and
cartoons, the study includes insights from nine discussion sessions held cartoons, the study includes insights from nine discussion sessions held
with twenty-two native Nobiin speakers. These discussions focus on how with twenty-two native Nobiin speakers. These discussions explore how
Nubians themselves perceive and feel about the negative representations Nubians themselves perceive and respond to negative representations
and stereotypes in the Egyptian media. The discussion also reveals how and stereotypes in Egyptian media. The discussions also delve into
Nobiin speakers think about their Arabic fluency and proficiency and how Nobiin speakers' reflections on their Arabic fluency and proficiency and how
it is depicted in the media and by filmmakers and screenwriters. it is depicted in the media and by filmmakers and screenwriters.
# Theory and Methodology # Theory and Methodology
@ -248,16 +248,16 @@ thus reinforcing stereotypes and maintaining the status quo of social
inequality. This analysis highlights the role of media in shaping inequality. This analysis highlights the role of media in shaping
perceptions and sustaining social hierarchies. perceptions and sustaining social hierarchies.
Ochs,[^16] a linguistic anthropologist, views indexicality as a spoken Ochs, a linguistic anthropologist, views indexicality as a spoken
property through which socio-cultural contexts (such as gender) and property through which socio-cultural contexts (such as gender) and
social activities (such as gossip) are formed by taking particular social activities (such as gossip) are formed by taking particular
stances that are indexed through the language chosen. In other words, stances that are indexed through the language chosen.[^16] In other words,
indexicality is interpreted in light of the semiotic associations indexicality is interpreted in light of the semiotic associations
between linguistic forms, social meanings, and identities. Ochs between linguistic forms, social meanings, and identities. Ochs
identifies two types of indexicality, direct and indirect, and each identifies two types of indexicality, direct and indirect, and each
performs different functions in discourse. According to Ochs,[^17] direct performs different functions in discourse. According to Ochs, direct
indexicality refers to interactional stances, including evaluative indexicality refers to interactional stances, including evaluative
stances, while indirect indexicality points to social stances. stances, while indirect indexicality points to social stances.[^17]
Among those who refer to an index as contextualization cues are Hughes Among those who refer to an index as contextualization cues are Hughes
and Tracy, discourse analysts, emphasizing that signaling context and and Tracy, discourse analysts, emphasizing that signaling context and
@ -269,9 +269,9 @@ Hughes and Tracy, indexicality is closely related to deixis and they could even
type of indexicality, which helps participants navigate the oral or type of indexicality, which helps participants navigate the oral or
written discourse frame through understanding references. Indexical and written discourse frame through understanding references. Indexical and
cultural contextual cues are essential to properly interpret inferences cultural contextual cues are essential to properly interpret inferences
and understand the ideologies behind them Johnstone et al.,[^19] a group and understand the ideologies behind them Johnstone et al., a group
of linguists, categorize indexes into two types; referential and of linguists, categorize indexes into two types: referential and
non-referential. On the one hand, referential indexes include pronouns non-referential.[^19] On the one hand, referential indexes include pronouns
and demonstratives i.e., the term denotation is based on the utterance and demonstratives i.e., the term denotation is based on the utterance
context. On the other hand, non-referential indexes are linguistic forms context. On the other hand, non-referential indexes are linguistic forms
that convey or construct social meaning. They consider 'social meaning' that convey or construct social meaning. They consider 'social meaning'
@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ in dynamic, context-specific ways. In other words, the presupposed
indexical meanings align with a higher metapragmatic order and are indexical meanings align with a higher metapragmatic order and are
"creatively" transformed to perpetuate new or existing social "creatively" transformed to perpetuate new or existing social
narratives. Silverstein's theory of indexicality offers a useful narratives. Silverstein's theory of indexicality offers a useful
framework for understanding how media represent Nubians both draw upon framework for understanding how media representations of Nubians both draw upon
and reshape existing social stereotypes. By focusing on second-order and reshape existing social stereotypes. By focusing on second-order
indexes, we gain a deeper understanding of how linguistic and visual indexes, we gain a deeper understanding of how linguistic and visual
elements---such as accents, racialized portrayals, or specific character elements---such as accents, racialized portrayals, or specific character
@ -322,10 +322,10 @@ from unnoticed linguistic markers to socially meaningful symbols is
central to how media perpetuates harmful stereotypes and embeds them central to how media perpetuates harmful stereotypes and embeds them
into the cultural imagination. into the cultural imagination.
Eckert,[^22] a prominent sociolinguist, emphasizes the close connection Eckert, a prominent sociolinguist, emphasizes the close connection
between speakers' ideologies and stylistic practices (both linguistic between speakers' ideologies and stylistic practices (both linguistic
and non-linguistic) utilized to construct worldwide views and social and non-linguistic) utilized to construct worldwide views and social
meanings. I argue that the stylistic choices---such as dark skin meanings.[^22] I argue that the stylistic choices---such as dark skin
portrayals, costumes depicting servants and doorkeepers, bright portrayals, costumes depicting servants and doorkeepers, bright
clothing, heavily accented Arabic, and numerous fluency and accuracy clothing, heavily accented Arabic, and numerous fluency and accuracy
errors---are deliberate and conscious decisions made by producers and errors---are deliberate and conscious decisions made by producers and
@ -349,7 +349,7 @@ direct and indirect negative indexes to reinforce these stereotypes.
These social meanings are highly marked, deliberately crafted, and These social meanings are highly marked, deliberately crafted, and
reinforced by the media\'s portrayal of Nubians in the Egyptian culture. reinforced by the media\'s portrayal of Nubians in the Egyptian culture.
However, Nubians have responded by creating positive personal and social However, Nubians have responded by creating positive personal and social
stances against these negative portrayals, speaking out in condemnation stances against these negative portrayals, speaking out in condemnation,
and initiating their own channels and venues to authentically represent and initiating their own channels and venues to authentically represent
their identity and culture. These efforts are discussed in detail later their identity and culture. These efforts are discussed in detail later
in the article, particularly in the \"Moving Forward: What Can Be in the article, particularly in the \"Moving Forward: What Can Be
@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ to the marginalization of Nubians and perpetuate harmful stereotypes,
underscoring ongoing issues with representation in the media. underscoring ongoing issues with representation in the media.
Two recent soap operas stand out as exceptions to the general portrayal Two recent soap operas stand out as exceptions to the general portrayal
of Nubians. The first soap opera is *as<sup>ʕ</sup>diqaa* 'Friends,' 29-episode of Nubians. The first soap opera is *as<sup>ʕ</sup>diqaa* 'Friends,' a 29-episode
series streamed in 2002. In this show, the Nubian character was not series streamed in 2002. In this show, the Nubian character was not
treated as an equal by one of the friends, but rather as an outsider treated as an equal by one of the friends, but rather as an outsider
included only because of a mutual friend who did who does business with included only because of a mutual friend who did who does business with
@ -392,18 +392,18 @@ of Egyptians and showcasing a unique authentic tradition.[^23] Overall,
two of the main characters spoke very highly of Nubians, expressing two of the main characters spoke very highly of Nubians, expressing
respect and appreciation for both the people and their culture. respect and appreciation for both the people and their culture.
The second soap opera, *il-muɣani* 'The Singer,' broadcasted in 2016, The second soap opera, *il-muɣani* 'The Singer,' which was aired in 2016,
features a famous Nubian actor, Mohamed Mounir, as the main character, features a famous Nubian actor as the main character,
with the entire series revolving around him and his life. Although it with the entire storyline revolving around his life. Although it
did not gain the widespread popularity of other soap operas, it stands did not achieve the widespread popularity of other soap operas, it stands
out for its authentic representation of Nubian culture. The series out for its authentic portrayal of Nubian culture. The series vivdily
showcases Nubian homescapes and daily life, including traditional Nubian depicts Nubian daily life and homescapes, showcasing traditional Nubian
houses, the Nile River, typical Nubian songs, palm trees and dates, houses, the Nile River, iconic songs, palm trees and dates,
boats, and musical instruments. These elements offer a rich and genuine boats, and musical instruments. These cultural elements offer a rich and genuine
portrayal of Nubian heritage. For instance, episode 5 poignantly depicts portrayal of Nubian heritage. For instance, episode 5 poignantly depicts
the forced relocation of Nubians from their homeland villages, with the forced relocation of Nubians from their homeland villages, with
characters dressed in traditional Nubian clothing, sorrowfully leaving characters dressed in traditional Nubian clothing, sorrowfully leaving
their own homes.[^24] This scene tries to emphasize both the cultural their own homes.[^24] This moving depiction highlights the cultural
and historical significance of the events, providing a glimpse into the and historical significance of the events, providing a glimpse into the
struggles and resilience of the Nubian people, while grounding the struggles and resilience of the Nubian people, while grounding the
narrative in real experiences and traditions. narrative in real experiences and traditions.
@ -443,7 +443,7 @@ man in blackface. In one particularly offensive scene, the actor Ramez
Galal addresses the Nubian character, saying, "Come on, you don't want Galal addresses the Nubian character, saying, "Come on, you don't want
your heart to be black, just like your face."[^26] This film contains your heart to be black, just like your face."[^26] This film contains
numerous racist and discriminatory indexes, perpetuating harmful numerous racist and discriminatory indexes, perpetuating harmful
stereotypes stereotypes.
![The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).](../static/images/taha/fig1.jpg "The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).") ![The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).](../static/images/taha/fig1.jpg "The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).")
**~~Figure 1. The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).~~** **~~Figure 1. The screenshot shows a non-Nubian actor named Soliman Eid in blackface pretending to be Nubian. Source: ʕija:l ħabiba 'love birds' (2005).~~**
@ -468,7 +468,7 @@ face is as dark as the night."[^29]
These examples highlight how media productions reinforce and perpetuate These examples highlight how media productions reinforce and perpetuate
negative stereotypes about Nubians through both visual and literary negative stereotypes about Nubians through both visual and literary
elements. The use of blackface, derogatory language, and offensive elements. The use of blackface, derogatory language, and offensive
depictions further marginalizes Nubians, casting them in demeaning and depictions further marginalize Nubians, casting them in demeaning and
inferior roles. inferior roles.
These portrayals are not isolated incidents but part of a broader These portrayals are not isolated incidents but part of a broader
@ -478,7 +478,7 @@ misrepresentation embeds harmful stereotypes into popular culture,
contributing to the wider social marginalization of Nubian communities. contributing to the wider social marginalization of Nubian communities.
Having established the connection between the visual and literary Having established the connection between the visual and literary
resources used to propagate these stereotypes, I will now turn to an resources used to propagate these stereotypes, I will now turn to the
analysis of linguistic resources and metalinguistic discourse. This next analysis of linguistic resources and metalinguistic discourse. This next
section will explore how specific linguistic choices, such as section will explore how specific linguistic choices, such as
intentional grammatical or pronunciation errors portrayed by characters intentional grammatical or pronunciation errors portrayed by characters
@ -506,8 +506,8 @@ cartoons.[^30]
In example 1a, a Nubian character is talking to a female character in In example 1a, a Nubian character is talking to a female character in
Arabic, but he mistakenly addresses her using a masculine possessive Arabic, but he mistakenly addresses her using a masculine possessive
form, which indicates that his Arabic is poor.[^32] Similarly, in form, highlighting his perceived poor command of Arabic.[^32] Similarly, in
example 1b the Nubian character shows his lack of accuracy by using a example 1b the Nubian character demonstrates a lack of accuracy by using a
feminine demonstrative with a masculine noun which is ungrammatical. feminine demonstrative with a masculine noun which is ungrammatical.
## Actors Gomaa Edriss and Ali Oraby[^33] ## Actors Gomaa Edriss and Ali Oraby[^33]
@ -515,16 +515,16 @@ feminine demonstrative with a masculine noun which is ungrammatical.
![Pronunciation error.](../static/images/taha/example2.jpg "Pronunciation error.") ![Pronunciation error.](../static/images/taha/example2.jpg "Pronunciation error.")
**~~Example 2. Pronunciation error.~~** **~~Example 2. Pronunciation error.~~**
In addition to the gender agreement language error, there are sometimes Beyond gender agreement errors, the portrayal includes
fluency errors i.e., pronunciation errors such as example 2a. In that fluency errors such as pronunciation mistakes. For instance, in example 2a,
example, the Nubian character fails to produce the /x/ sound, so he the character fails to produce the /x/ sound, so he
replaced it with the /h/ sound i.e., *il-ha:mes* 'fifth' instead of replaces it with the /h/ sound i.e., *il-ha:mes* 'fifth' instead of
*il-xa:mes*. Additionally, in the same example, the Nubian character *il-xa:mes*. Additionally, in the same example, the Nubian character
mispronounced the vowel in the word *il- shuʃt* 'section' instead of mispronounces the vowel in the word *il- shuʃt* 'section' instead of
*il-shoʃt.* In example 2b, there are multiple accuracy language errors. *il-shoʃt.* In example 2b, multiple accuracy language errors are evident.
First, the Nubian character addressed a group of people using a singular First, the Nubian character addresses a group of people using a singular
masculine form *usta:z* 'sir'. Then, he switched to using a feminine masculine form *usta:z* 'sir' before switching to a singular feminine
singular form, rather than a plural form. Examples 2c and 2d are form instead of the appropriate plural. Examples 2c and 2d are
ungrammatical as the Nubian character uses plural and third person ungrammatical as the Nubian character uses plural and third person
masculine forms, respectively, when he refers to himself. masculine forms, respectively, when he refers to himself.
@ -536,21 +536,19 @@ masculine forms, respectively, when he refers to himself.
In example 3a, the Nubian character is looking for his boss's cigarette In example 3a, the Nubian character is looking for his boss's cigarette
and the lighter used a possessive marker that does not agree, and the lighter used a possessive marker that does not agree,
gender-wise, with the noun it modifies. Similarly, in example 3b, the gender-wise, with the noun it modifies. Similarly, in example 3b, the
same Nubian character talks to a female co-worker about the woman he same Nubian character talks to a female co-worker about his employer who is a woman,
works for using masculine forms (masculine participles), and hence, but uses masculine forms (masculine participles), and hence,
there is gender disagreement. there is gender disagreement.
The following examples show the gender disagreement between determiners, Further examples highlight systematic gender disagreement between determiners,
quantifiers, and possessive markers and their modified nouns. quantifiers, and possessive markers and their modified nouns. Examples 4a, 4b, and 4c show such ungrammatical usage.
## Actor Ali Oraby[^35] ## Actor Ali Oraby[^35]
![Disagreement between modifiers.](../static/images/taha/example4.jpg "Disagreement between modifiers.") ![Disagreement between modifiers.](../static/images/taha/example4.jpg "Disagreement between modifiers.")
**~~Example 4. Disagreement between modifiers.~~** **~~Example 4. Disagreement between modifiers.~~**
Example 4a, 4b, and 4c are ungrammatical because they show disagreement Examples 4a, 4b, and 4c purposefully demonstrate the Nubian character's lack of accuracy and
between modifiers and the nouns that are being modified. These examples
purposefully demonstrate the Nubian character's lack of accuracy and
proficiency. In 4a, *mawdʕuʕ di* 'this matter,' the feminine proficiency. In 4a, *mawdʕuʕ di* 'this matter,' the feminine
demonstrative does not agree with the masculine noun in gender. In demonstrative does not agree with the masculine noun in gender. In
contrast, in 4b, ʕaj*:la waħid* 'one family,' the masculine quantifier contrast, in 4b, ʕaj*:la waħid* 'one family,' the masculine quantifier
@ -565,73 +563,55 @@ rather than the feminine using possessive markers *bita:ʕek* 'your'.
Example 5a shows a case of noun-verb disagreement, whereby the Nubian Example 5a shows a case of noun-verb disagreement, whereby the Nubian
character uses plural verb conjugation when referring to himself. On the character uses plural verb conjugation when referring to himself. On the
other hand, he chooses the wrong word i.e., using *rubatʕaja* 'gang' other hand, in example 5b, he chooses the wrong word i.e., using *rubatʕaja* 'gang'
instead of *rabtʕta* 'union' in example 5b as an example of his instead of *rabtʕta* 'union' as an example of his
intelligibility and incoherence. Example 5c shows an interesting case of intelligibility and incoherence. Example 5c shows a grammatical error where the speaker uses the singular first person for the participle ‘want’ followed immediately by the plural form of the verb ‘know,’ creating an awkward and inconsistent structure.
pronunciation in which the actor produces the word by mixing it between
*Seʕidi* dialect and Modern Standard Arabic, which makes it sound odd
and peculiar.
As we can see, all examples present syntactic disagreement As we can see, all examples present syntactic disagreement
(noun-adjective agreement, verb-noun agreement, demonstrative and (noun-adjective agreement, verb-noun agreement, demonstrative and
pronoun disagreement) or phonological errors or idiosyncrasy, often pronoun disagreement) or phonological errors or idiosyncrasy, often
accompanied by a heavy accent of Arabic. The question is, why these accompanied by a heavy accent of Arabic. The question is, why these
language errors in particular? There are two possible hypotheses or language errors in particular? There are two possible hypotheses or
scenarios to explain the media fixation on these intentional scenarios that explain the media fixation on these intentional
metalinguistic discourse errors. The first postulation goes back to the metalinguistic discourse errors. The first postulation is associated with
fact that the earliest Nubians, the monolingual speakers of Nubian, who historical linguistic challenges. The earliest Nubians, often monolingual speakers of Nubian, who
migrated to different areas in Egypt such as Cairo and Alexandria to migrated to different areas in Egypt such as Cairo and Alexandria to
look for job opportunities had some language difficulties when learning look for job opportunities had some language difficulties when learning
Arabic due to the influence of their mother tongue. For example, Arabic due to the influence of their mother tongue. For example,
Rouchdy, a linguistic researcher, noted in her research study in 1991, Rouchdy, a linguistic researcher, noted in her 1991 study,
that non-competent Fadija bilingual speakers had a tendency to add the that non-competent Fadija bilingual speakers had a tendency to add the
suffix -a to borrowed Arabic words such as *aneeda* 'stubborn.'[^37] suffix -a to borrowed Arabic words such as *aneeda* 'stubborn.'[^37]
Nevertheless, do Nubians, considering all the generations that have Nevertheless, do Nubians, considering all the generations that have
emerged since the early relocations because of the Aswan Dam construction in emerged since the forced relocations because of the Aswan Dam construction in
1905, still face language proficiency and accuracy issues? Are Nubians 1905, still face language proficiency and accuracy issues? Are Nubians
today merely monolingual speakers of Nubian? Do they still have the today merely monolingual speakers of Nubian? Most Nubians today are bilingual speakers of Arabic
stereotypical heavy accent of Arabic that is still portrayed in the
media? The majority of Nubians today are bilingual speakers of Arabic
and Nubian. Unfortunately, in some cases, they are monolinguals of and Nubian. Unfortunately, in some cases, they are monolinguals of
Arabic. The Arabic spoken by Nubians varies depending on their region; Arabic. The Arabic spoken by Nubians varies regionally;
for example, those living in Aswan or Luxor typically speak the *Seʕidi* for example, those in Aswan or Luxor commonly speak the *Seʕidi*
dialect, while those in Cairo tend to use the Cairene dialect. dialect, while Cairo residents use the Cairene dialect.
That brings us to the second hypothesis regarding why the Arabic spoken The second hypothesis points to intentional stereotyping prevalent in the media.
by Nubians is often portrayed as "broken," flawed, unintelligible, The portrayal of Nubians as "broken," flawed, unintelligible,
faulty, incompetent, or defective in movies and soap operas. These faulty, or incompetent, coupled with a heavy accent, is deliberate and serves to reinforce stigmas and propaganda surrounding these media productions. These
linguistic errors, along with the heavy accent, are more conspicuous and linguistic inaccuracies are not random; they represent recurring patterns in the language used by filmmakers and screenwriters. Such portrayals often go hand-in-hand with blackface and visual tropes that depict Nubians as belonging to a lower socioeconomic status. I believe that the second hypothesis provides a compelling explanation for the persistence of these stereotypes in Egyptian media. By amplifying these intentional errors, the media perpetuates widespread mockery, prejudice, and harmful representations of Nubians, further entrenching societal stigmas.
serve to reinforce stigmas and propaganda surrounding these media
productions. Such errors are not random; they represent recurring
patterns in the language used by filmmakers and screenwriters.
Consequently, Nubians are unjustly associated with extensive mockery,
prejudice, and direct insults that are emphasized by the media. I
believe that this second hypothesis provides a plausible explanation for
the portrayal of problematic Arabic, as it is often reinforced by the
use of blackface and other associations that denote lower socioeconomic
status and perpetuate negative stereotypes.
# Discussion data: Participants and Procedures # Discussion data: Participants and Procedures
A discussion was held with native Nobiin speakers to show how they A discussion was held with native Nobiin speakers to explore their
perceive the negative indexes attributed to themselves and the Nubian perception of the negative indexes associated with themselves and the Nubian
language in the Egyptian media. There were twenty-two participants in language in the Egyptian media. There were twenty-two participants:
this discussion: eight females and fourteen males with ages ranging from eight females and fourteen males ranging in age from
twenty to seventy years old. All the participants are educated and hold twenty to seventy years old. All the participants were educated and held
various higher education degrees (bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D.'s). various higher education degrees (bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. qualifications).
Responses were not anonymous, because it was unnecessary and it is Responses were not anonymous, as identifying information was deemed beneficial for analyzing social variables. Participants were recruited through the researcher’s social networks (family, friends, and community members). All participants provided consent prior to the discussion.
beneficial to know certain information for the data analysis, especially
for the social variables. The researcher recruited the participants
through social networks (family, friends, and community members). All
participants gave their consent before the discussion was conducted
Most participants live in Egypt: eight in Aswan, nine in Cairo, and one Most participants reside in Egypt: eight in Aswan, nine in Cairo, and one
in Luxor. Three of the participants currently live in Saudi Arabia, in Luxor. Three participants currently live in Saudi Arabia
while one participant lives in the United States. The majority of the and one participant lives in the United States. The majority of the
participants are bilingual (speak both Arabic and Nobiin); seven participants are bilingual (fluent in both Arabic and Nobiin). Seven
participants are heritage speakers of Nobiin (they understand the participants, however, are heritage speakers of Nobiin, meaning they understand
language, but do not speak it) and native speakers of Arabic. Table 1 Nobiin, but primarily speak Arabic. Table 1
provides details about the participants' background information. provides details about the participants' background information.
![A table showing the participants of this study.](../static/images/taha/table1.jpg "A table showing the participants of this study.") ![A table showing the participants of this study.](../static/images/taha/table1.jpg "A table showing the participants of this study.")
@ -657,7 +637,7 @@ media.
# Discussion: Results and findings summary # Discussion: Results and findings summary
To analyze the discussion data, I coded the discussion data and then To analyze the discussion data, I coded it and then
created a graph for each question to organize and categorize the created a graph for each question to organize and categorize the
collected data visually. This section presents the study discussion collected data visually. This section presents the study discussion
results, their frequencies, and some of the participants' statements and results, their frequencies, and some of the participants' statements and
@ -666,7 +646,7 @@ opinions.
## Early Nubian representations in the Egyptian media ## Early Nubian representations in the Egyptian media
The distribution of the first discussion question is presented in Graph 3. As The distribution of the first discussion question is presented in Graph 3. As
Figure 3 reveals there are twenty-one participants stating that the Figure 3 reveals, there are twenty-one participants stating that the
early representations of Nubians in the Egyptian media are early representations of Nubians in the Egyptian media are
discriminatory and prejudicial (95%), while one participant indicated discriminatory and prejudicial (95%), while one participant indicated
that they were not intentionally belittling or undermining them (5%). that they were not intentionally belittling or undermining them (5%).
@ -715,8 +695,8 @@ All the participants are aware that portraying Nubians as
underprivileged and low-paid workers is derived from the fact that these underprivileged and low-paid workers is derived from the fact that these
were typical professions occupied by those who migrated to Cairo and were typical professions occupied by those who migrated to Cairo and
Alexandria in the early 20th century, particularly during the Alexandria in the early 20th century, particularly during the
significant relocations for High Dam construction between 1902 and 1964. significant relocations because of the High Dam construction between 1902 and 1964.
These early migrations were largely influenced by limited educational These early migrations were largely driven by limited educational
opportunities and the well-earned reputation of Nubians as trustworthy, diligent, hardworking, honest, and faithful individuals. opportunities and the well-earned reputation of Nubians as trustworthy, diligent, hardworking, honest, and faithful individuals.
However, Nubians continue to be depicted primarily in lower-class jobs, However, Nubians continue to be depicted primarily in lower-class jobs,
overlooking the distinguished and reputable careers they hold today. overlooking the distinguished and reputable careers they hold today.
@ -782,6 +762,8 @@ reputations.
![The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.](../static/images/taha/fig5.jpg "The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.") ![The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.](../static/images/taha/fig5.jpg "The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.")
**~~Figure 5. The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.~~** **~~Figure 5. The graph presents Nubians views regarding their portrayals in movies and soap operas.~~**
## Depictions of Nubians in documentary movies
Alternatively, Nubian representations in documentary movies are very Alternatively, Nubian representations in documentary movies are very
objective, as shown in Figure 6 below. The widespread consensus objective, as shown in Figure 6 below. The widespread consensus
responses indicate that the documentary movies represent authentic responses indicate that the documentary movies represent authentic
@ -795,35 +777,33 @@ available on YouTube, covering topics like food, the Nile River
sacredness, handicrafts, weddings, homescapes, and customs. sacredness, handicrafts, weddings, homescapes, and customs.
Notable examples include *aj-ga ʤilli* 'Remember me',[^39] uploaded in Notable examples include *aj-ga ʤilli* 'Remember me',[^39] uploaded in
2011 and *Sono* 'roots' in 2020,[^40] both of them offering viewers a 2011, and *Sono* 'roots' in 2020,[^40] both of them offering viewers a
more accurate and respectful look at the richness of Nubian culture. more accurate and respectful look at the richness of Nubian culture.
## Depictions of Nubians in documentary movies
Similarly, music video clips have an essential and promising role in
maintaining the Nubian language and cultural heritage.[^41] These music
videos are also accessible on YouTube and discuss vital issues such as
migration, relocation, family bonds, solidarity, religion, and other
inspirational themes. Figure 7 presents question five discussion
results, and we can see that most participants agree that the Nubians
are genuinely represented in music videos (80%). The impartiality of
Nubian representations in music videos amounts to 18% compared to the
frequency of the ingenuine representations of Nubians in YouTube video
clips.
![The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.](../static/images/taha/fig6.jpg "The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.") ![The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.](../static/images/taha/fig6.jpg "The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.")
**~~Figure 6. The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.~~** **~~Figure 6. The graph exhibits objective Nubian portrayal in documentary movies.~~**
## How are the Nubians portrayed in music video cips? ## How are the Nubians portrayed in music video cips?
Similarly, music video clips have an essential and promising role in
maintaining the Nubian language and cultural heritage.[^41] These music
video clips are also accessible on YouTube and discuss vital issues such as
migration, relocation, family bonds, solidarity, religion, and other
inspirational themes. Figure 7 presents question five discussion
results, and we can see that most participants agree that the Nubians
are genuinely represented in music video clips (80%). The impartiality of
Nubian representations in music video clips amounts to 18% compared to the
frequency of the ingenuine representations of Nubians in YouTube video
clips.
Participant 22, a young male in his twenties, explained that Nubian Participant 22, a young male in his twenties, explained that Nubian
music videos have "Touched the hearts and souls of millions of music video clips have "Touched the hearts and souls of millions of
non-Nubian Egyptians and they know some songs by heart, even if they do non-Nubian Egyptians and they know some songs by heart, even if they do
not understand the Nubian language." Conversely, participant 13, a not understand the Nubian language." Conversely, participant 13, a
fifty- two-year-old female speaker, believes that most of the videotaped fifty- two-year-old female speaker, believes that most of the videotaped
songs are not authentic as they are filmed exclusively in the Western songs are not authentic as they are filmed exclusively in the Western
part of Aswan and have several overgeneralized elements. She also noted part of Aswan and have several overgeneralized elements. She also noted
that "many people dancing in these music videos are not Nubians and that "many people dancing in these music video clips are not Nubians and
cannot dance as Nubians." Agreeing with the majority of the cannot dance as Nubians." Agreeing with the majority of the
participants, I believe that Nubian songs, whether they are audio or participants, I believe that Nubian songs, whether they are audio or
video recorded, are powerful tools for portraying the real Nubian video recorded, are powerful tools for portraying the real Nubian
@ -902,7 +882,7 @@ themes, which resonate with listeners across different backgrounds."
The traditional Nubian clothing is white *galabia*, "a white garment" The traditional Nubian clothing is white *galabia*, "a white garment"
for males, and a black *gargaar*, "a black dress, usually colored for males, and a black *gargaar*, "a black dress, usually colored
clothing underneath it," for females, as shown in the picture below. clothing underneath it," for females, as shown in the picture below.
Throughout videotaped songs, and even documentaries, Nubian men are Throughout videotaped songs and even documentaries, Nubian men are
usually depicted wearing a *galabia*, while women wear *gargaar* and usually depicted wearing a *galabia*, while women wear *gargaar* and
headscarves. Discussion question seven aimed to show how the headscarves. Discussion question seven aimed to show how the
participants feel about the recurring pattern of clothing authenticity participants feel about the recurring pattern of clothing authenticity
@ -933,10 +913,10 @@ speakers of Nobiin.
**~~Figure 11. The graph compares the distribution of the clothing authenticity utilized in music songs and documentaries.~~** **~~Figure 11. The graph compares the distribution of the clothing authenticity utilized in music songs and documentaries.~~**
Figure 11 shows the Figure 11 shows the
frequency of participants' responses to the authenticity of Nubian frequency of participants' responses to the distribution of the authenticity of Nubian
clothing representations in music videos and documentary movies. Interestingly, the age range of the five participants who believe that clothing representations in music video clips and documentary movies. Interestingly, the age range of the five participants who believe that
clothing authenticity in music videos is partially true to life, clothing authenticity in music video clips is partially true to life,
amounting to 23% of clothing authenticity in music videos data, is from amounting to 23% of clothing authenticity in music video clips data, is from
the twenties to forties and they are all heritage Nubian speakers, born the twenties to forties and they are all heritage Nubian speakers, born
and raised in Cairo. The traditional national Nubian clothing is still and raised in Cairo. The traditional national Nubian clothing is still
used nowadays and is a unique part of the Nubian culture, so visually used nowadays and is a unique part of the Nubian culture, so visually
@ -1037,7 +1017,7 @@ representations of Nubians in the media, the prejudiced portrayal of
Nubians in movies and soap operas, the positive depiction of Nubians in Nubians in movies and soap operas, the positive depiction of Nubians in
documentaries, and the unauthentic costumes used by musical bands. The documentaries, and the unauthentic costumes used by musical bands. The
second highest frequency, as indicated in discussion questions 5-7, is second highest frequency, as indicated in discussion questions 5-7, is
the genuine presentation of Nubians in music videos, the crucial role the genuine presentation of Nubians in music video clips, the crucial role
played by Mounir in spreading awareness of the Nubian language and played by Mounir in spreading awareness of the Nubian language and
culture through his influential music and artistic vision, and the culture through his influential music and artistic vision, and the
authenticity of apparel portrayed in documentaries and videotaped songs. authenticity of apparel portrayed in documentaries and videotaped songs.
@ -1064,7 +1044,7 @@ their status as Egyptian citizens. Prominent Nubian singers such as
Ahmed Mounib, Khedr El-Attar, Hamza El Din, Mohamed Mounir, and others Ahmed Mounib, Khedr El-Attar, Hamza El Din, Mohamed Mounir, and others
play a significant role in preserving the language and culture. Their play a significant role in preserving the language and culture. Their
music often features traditional themes and rhythms, and several Nubian music often features traditional themes and rhythms, and several Nubian
music videos are translated into Arabic to raise awareness and make the music video clips are translated into Arabic to raise awareness and make the
language accessible to younger generations whose primary language may be language accessible to younger generations whose primary language may be
Arabic. The influence of these artists extends beyond entertainment; it Arabic. The influence of these artists extends beyond entertainment; it
serves as a bridge, connecting diverse audiences to the rich tapestry of serves as a bridge, connecting diverse audiences to the rich tapestry of
@ -1124,7 +1104,7 @@ undergoing redesign. Similar to the Art of Nubia, NAPATA provides
information on Nubian poetry, music, language, history, and heritage. As information on Nubian poetry, music, language, history, and heritage. As
a non-profit organization, NAPATA is dedicated to serving the needs of a non-profit organization, NAPATA is dedicated to serving the needs of
rural Nubian communities and other regions, with a focus on promoting rural Nubian communities and other regions, with a focus on promoting
Nubian heritage, culture, and language. Another Significant effort to Nubian heritage, culture, and language. Another significant effort to
counter negative stereotypes is the Nubian Cultural Center for Social counter negative stereotypes is the Nubian Cultural Center for Social
Development in Aswan, Egypt. This organization works to preserve and Development in Aswan, Egypt. This organization works to preserve and
promote Nubian heritage through educational programs, workshops, and promote Nubian heritage through educational programs, workshops, and
@ -1166,7 +1146,7 @@ resistance underscores a critical pushback against misrepresentation.
The second part of the article reveals how native Nobiins perceive their The second part of the article reveals how native Nobiins perceive their
portrayal in the media, revealing both their frustration with the portrayal in the media, revealing both their frustration with the
negative stereotypes and their pride in positive representations, negative stereotypes and their pride in positive representations,
especially in documentaries and music videos. Moving forward, it is especially in documentaries and music video clips. Moving forward, it is
imperative that these stereotypes be dismantled, and that awareness be imperative that these stereotypes be dismantled, and that awareness be
raised among all Egyptians---both Nubians and non-Nubians---about the raised among all Egyptians---both Nubians and non-Nubians---about the
harmful impact of these depictions. Without such change, new generations harmful impact of these depictions. Without such change, new generations
@ -1188,7 +1168,7 @@ Education:
Age: Age:
Place of Residence Place of Residence:
I have nine questions and I will start the discussion by showing you I have nine questions and I will start the discussion by showing you
some pictures to help with our discussion and then we can talk about some pictures to help with our discussion and then we can talk about
@ -1199,7 +1179,7 @@ them and elaborate on the target questions.
representations in the Egyptian media? representations in the Egyptian media?
2. Now, look at these pictures from several soap operas. Have the 2. Now, look at these pictures from several soap operas. Have the
Nubian representation in the Egyptian media recently changed? Can Nubian representations in the Egyptian media recently changed? Can
you explain your opinion with some examples? you explain your opinion with some examples?
3. Could you tell me about the Nubian portrayals in the movies and soap 3. Could you tell me about the Nubian portrayals in the movies and soap
@ -1209,28 +1189,30 @@ them and elaborate on the target questions.
representation in movies and soap operas? Please explain and provide representation in movies and soap operas? Please explain and provide
some examples. some examples.
5. Now, let's move to music videos. How are Nubians portrayed in music 5. Now, let's move to music video clips. How are Nubians portrayed in music
videos? What do you think about this representation in terms of how video clips? What do you think about this representation in terms of how
genuine it is? genuine it is?
6. Mohamed Monir is one of the famous Nubian singers. Do you think he 6. Mohamed Monir is one of the famous Nubian singers. Do you think he
plays a role in promoting the Nubian culture and language? How so? plays a role in promoting the Nubian culture and language? How so?
If yes, how do you describe this role? If yes, how do you describe this role?
7. Now let's talk about Nubian clothing used in most music videos. How 7. Now let's talk about Nubian clothing used in most music video clips. How
do you feel about the use of the white *galabia*, and the black do you feel about the use of the white *galabia*, and the black
*gargaar*? *gargaar*?
8. How do the Nubian costumes used by music bands on TV shows and 8. How do the Nubian costumes used by music bands on TV shows and
YouTube differ from the clothes used in music videos? Are the YouTube differ from the clothes used in music video clips? Are the
costumes used by the music bands authentic? Please explain and costumes used by the music bands authentic? Please explain and
provide some examples. provide some examples.
9. Have you heard of the cartoon Bakkar? What do you think about it? 9. Have you heard of the cartoon *Bakkar*? What do you think about it?
How are Nubians represented in the cartoon? Do you believe that How are Nubians represented in the cartoon? Do you believe that
their representations are realistic? their representations are realistic?
# Appendix 2: IPA transcription of Arabic[^46] # Appendix 2: IPA transcription of Arabic
Appendix 2 provides a description of the Arabic IPA Arabic sounds used in this paper.
![Table with IPA transcription of Arabic.](../static/images/taha/appendix2.jpg "Table with IPA transcription of Arabic.") ![Table with IPA transcription of Arabic.](../static/images/taha/appendix2.jpg "Table with IPA transcription of Arabic.")
@ -1297,7 +1279,7 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6 (2019): pp. 113--48
[^4]: In this paper, International Phonetic Alphabets (IPA) [^4]: In this paper, International Phonetic Alphabets (IPA)
transcription of Egyptian Colloquial Arabic is used. Please check transcription of Egyptian Colloquial Arabic is used. Please check
appendix 2 for details. appendix 2 for details. This paper uses /j/, which can be represented as /y/ in other systems.
[^5]: Bassiouney, *Constructing the Stereotype*, p. 7. [^5]: Bassiouney, *Constructing the Stereotype*, p. 7.
@ -1332,9 +1314,9 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6 (2019): pp. 113--48
[^18]: Hughes and Tracy, "Indexicality," p. 1. [^18]: Hughes and Tracy, "Indexicality," p. 1.
[^19]: Johnstone et al., "Mobility, Indexicality, and the Enregisterment [^19]: Johnstone et al., "Mobility, Indexicality, and the Enregisterment
of 'Pittsburghese'." of 'Pittsburghese'," p. 81.
[^20]: PAGE NUMBERS [^20]: Ibid.
[^21]: Silverstein, "Indexical order and the Dialectics of [^21]: Silverstein, "Indexical order and the Dialectics of
Sociolinguistic Life," p. 194. Sociolinguistic Life," p. 194.
@ -1346,26 +1328,19 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6 (2019): pp. 113--48
(accessed May 2021). (accessed May 2021).
[^24]: See [^24]: See
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYfif7sAnpw&list=PL4ZQAyKFoBc-GzgfgRN8M9HJe152WYJ9D&index=5 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYfif7sAnpw&list=PL4ZQAyKFoBc-GzgfgRN8M9HJe152WYJ9D&index=5 (accessed May 2021).
[^25]: See [^25]: See
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLW3gDcVzak https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLW3gDcVzak
(accessed in May 2021).
[^26]: See
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L7L8zMTxsYc
(accessed in June 2020).
[^27]: See
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G-5gKXOkNQ
(accessed May 2021). (accessed May 2021).
[^28]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctImkHHP9x4 [^26]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9ViDzUnJUU (accessed November 2024).
(accessed August 2021).
[^29]: See [^27]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G-5gKXOkNQ (accessed May 2021).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_A90OVqQtSM
(accessed September 2021). [^28]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irloGB1-N6A (accessed September 2024).
[^29]: He was not a non-Nubian Egyptian actor born in 1887. He was one the earliest actors to stigmatize and grossly exaggerate Nubians in movies and plays. His style of portraying Nubians, that includes ridiculing their Arabic fluency and accuracy, is still used in Egypt. See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAPYImuAK_g (accessed June 2021).
[^30]: Glossing abbreviations used in this paper: 1- first person; 2- [^30]: Glossing abbreviations used in this paper: 1- first person; 2-
second person; 3- third person; IMP- imperative; PR- proper noun; second person; 3- third person; IMP- imperative; PR- proper noun;
@ -1420,7 +1395,7 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6 (2019): pp. 113--48
[^40]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AU0clu5ft-E (accessed in September 2021). [^40]: See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AU0clu5ft-E (accessed in September 2021).
[^41]: In this study, music video refers to video recorded or filmed [^41]: In this study, music video clips refer to recorded video clips or filmed
performances usually accompanied by dancing, visual images, and performances usually accompanied by dancing, visual images, and
musical instruments intended to promote and showcase artists and musical instruments intended to promote and showcase artists and
cultures and marketing for their albums. cultures and marketing for their albums.
@ -1430,12 +1405,10 @@ Arabic in Egypt." *Dotawo* 6 (2019): pp. 113--48
conducted the radio broadcasted interview with Mounir discussing the conducted the radio broadcasted interview with Mounir discussing the
Egyptian revolution. Egyptian revolution.
[^43]: See https://www.youtube.com/%40NubaTubeChannel (accessed September 2021) and http://www.youtube.com/%40%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%B77%D8%B9 [^43]: See https://www.youtube.com/%40NubaTubeChannel (accessed September 2024) and www.youtube.com/@قناةالنوبة-ط7ع
(accessed September 2021) respectively. (accessed September 2024) respectively.
[^44]: https://artofnubia.com/index.html [^44]: https://artofnubia.com/index.html
[^45]: https://www.napata.org/language.html [^45]: https://www.napata.org/language.html
[^46]: Appendix 2 provides a description of the Arabic IPA Arabic sounds
used in this paper.