From db89ad03fa0700c3f3a773cac6465b0f030a3d6b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alexandros Tsakos Date: Fri, 14 Apr 2023 17:56:14 +0200 Subject: [PATCH] almost final --- content/article/HafsaasWar.md | 248 +++++++++++++++++----------------- content/article/honegger.md | 54 ++++---- content/article/roksana.md | 24 ++-- content/article/tsakos.md | 124 ++++++++--------- content/article/urosmatic.md | 202 +++++++++++++-------------- 5 files changed, 326 insertions(+), 326 deletions(-) diff --git a/content/article/HafsaasWar.md b/content/article/HafsaasWar.md index d91b8a0..839cb11 100644 --- a/content/article/HafsaasWar.md +++ b/content/article/HafsaasWar.md @@ -316,7 +316,7 @@ irregular, oval, oblong, and ovoid,[^63] which fit a Naqada I date. In Cemetery 7, four weapons or tool-weapons were found in three graves -- two maces and two ground stone axes (Figure 2). The mace-heads -were of the disc-shaped type and made of black and white/*pink* speckled +were of the disc-shaped type and made of black and white speckled stone. The shape is similar to the disc-shaped maces of Neolithic Sudan.[^64] Maces were specialized striking weapons, while ground stone axes could have been used as both weapons and tools. However, the size @@ -600,7 +600,7 @@ indication of violence.[^121] Moreover, blunt force trauma to the skull is more easily attested archaeologically than injuries from arrows, spears, and daggers, which often affect soft tissues.[^122] In northern Lower Nubia, several violent deaths caused by fractures to the skull -inflicted by a blunt instrument -- probably a mace -- are attested +after blunt force violence, probably with a mace, are attested during the mid-4th millennium BCE.[^123] The practice of attacking the head also led to distinctive defensive injuries.[^124] Fractures of the distal ulna in the lower arm can derive from fending a blow to the head. @@ -648,10 +648,10 @@ parry fracture of her right ulna. This fracture is a typical defensive injury.[^135] The graves of both victims were on the fringe of the cemetery, and the male in grave 257 was probably the last individual to be buried in the cemetery before abandonment.[^136] The male in grave -267 had a healed fracture probably not related to interpersonal +267 had a healed fracture probably unrelated to interpersonal violence. -Injuries relating to violence were also recorded at Cemetery 14 +Injuries caused by violence were also recorded at Cemetery 14 (Appendix 3). The male in grave 10 died from excessive blunt force violence to the skull, eight fractured ribs on his right side, and a fracture on the right side of the pubis. The violence had caused much @@ -669,20 +669,20 @@ in grave 29 had fractured the distal portion of the right ulna,[^142] which suggests a parry fracture caused when fending a blow to the head.[^143] Additionally, the mid-point of the left clavicle had a healed fracture (Figure 7a).[^144] +A direct frontal blow with a +heavy device,[^145] like a mace, could inflict this injury. Both +injuries seem related to interpersonal violence and may have occurred +during a single attack. The male in grave 24 also had a healed fracture +of the middle of the right clavicle (Figure 7b).[^146] ![Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig7a.jpg "Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 74).") **~~Figure 7a: Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).~~** -A direct frontal blow with a -heavy device,[^145] like a mace, could inflict this injury. Both -injuries seem related to interpersonal violence and may have occurred -during a single attack. The male in grave 24 also had a healed fracture -of the middle of the right clavicle (**Figure 7b**).[^146] -![Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig7b.jpg "Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).") +![Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 75).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig7b.jpg "Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 75).") -**~~Figure 7b: Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 74).~~** +**~~Figure 7b: Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 75).~~** The archaeologists recorded no injuries related to interpersonal violence at Cemetery 41/200, but the skeletal remains were fragmentary @@ -693,12 +693,12 @@ Abundant skeletal evidence for interpersonal violence was recorded at Cemetery 45 (Appendix 6). The elderly male in grave 211 appears to have been executed by having the back of his neck cut with a sharp instrument. This individual received seven incisions across the -posterior surface of three of the cervical vertebrae (Figure +posterior surface of two of the cervical vertebrae (Figure 8).[^148] -![The man in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig8.jpg "The man in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).") +![The male in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig8.jpg "The male in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).") -**~~Figure 8: The man in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).~~** +**~~Figure 8: The male in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).~~** This practice of execution has in recent years been revealed on a large scale at Hierakonpolis.[^149] The anatomists suggested that a @@ -713,7 +713,7 @@ an assault with blunt force violence.[^154] Individuals in grave 204 and 235 had healed fractures most likely unrelated to interpersonal violence. -## Missing Skulls in the A-Group Cemeteries of the Proto-Phase +## Absent Skulls in the A-Group Cemeteries of the Proto-Phase In addition to the violent deaths just described, the skull was missing from several graves in the cemeteries of the A-Group predecessors. In @@ -788,7 +788,7 @@ criminals, which are later attested in Egypt.[^172] Sean P. Dougherty and Renée Friedman indeed suggest that the people with severed necks in Cemetery HK43 had received capital punishment.[^173] -I propose that we should consider the possibility that the bodies +I propose that we consider the possibility that the bodies without heads dating to the proto-phase in northern Lower Nubia belonged to A-Group predecessors killed in action and decapitated on the battlefield.[^174] Decapitation of prisoners of war certainly was a @@ -819,16 +819,16 @@ material. Most of the injuries seem to have been caused by blunt force violence -- most probably stone maces. However, two individuals died in attacks where sharp force violence also was used -- most likely copper-alloy weapons. Both males and females were injured and killed in -these cemeteries (see Appendices 1-6). +these cemeteries (see Appendices 2-6). ![Violent deaths, violent injuries antemortem, absent and broken skulls in total and in per cent in A-Group cemeteries dating to the proto-phase. Data from Appendices 2-6.](../static/images/hafsaas/Table2.jpg "Violent deaths, violent injuries antemortem, missing skulls, and broken skulls in total and in per cent in A-Group cemeteries dating to the proto-phase. Data from Appendices 2-6.") **~~Table 2. Violent deaths, violent injuries antemortem, missing skulls, and broken skulls in total and in per cent in A-Group cemeteries dating to the proto-phase. Data from Appendices 2-6.~~** -Furthermore, ten individuals appear to have been buried without their +Furthermore, nine individuals appear to have been buried without their skull, and seventeen individuals were uncovered with their skull broken (see Table 2). In the sample of 167 burials, the skull was missing -in 6 per cent of the graves. Additionally, 10 per cent of the burials +in 5 per cent of the graves. Additionally, 10 per cent of the burials were found with the head broken. Relevant comparative evidence from the Bronze Age is hard to find. Most cemeteries in Lower Nubia have been plundered in ancient and modern times. Furthermore, the human remains in @@ -991,8 +991,8 @@ resettled on the plains of Meris and Dehmit further south. The next clashes took place soon afterwards at Meris and Dehmit. Beside the violent deaths and injuries, I have identified a pattern where up to 12 per cent of the individuals in the cemeteries of the A-Group -predecessors in northern Lower Nubia were recorded with their skull -missing (see Table 2). Furthermore, up to 22 per cent of the +predecessors in northern Lower Nubia were recorded with the skull +absent (see Table 2). Furthermore, up to 22 per cent of the individuals had their skull broken post-mortem. Especially cemeteries 41 and 45 have high numbers of missing and broken skulls. Archaeologists usually explain the absence of the skull in Nubia as an effect of grave @@ -1083,19 +1083,19 @@ predecessors and the Naqada people increasingly came to define themselves in opposition to each other, and their cultural and social differences continued to widen with time. For the latter half of the 4th millennium BCE, the A-Group people left a distinctive -archaeological heritage in the region between Bab el-Kalabsha and Batn -el-Hajar (see Map 1). +archaeological heritage in the region between Bab el-Kalabsha in northern Lower Nubia and Batn +el-Hajar above the Second Cataract. When the ethnic boundary was in place, the Naqada people established at least eight sites in northern Lower Nubia.[^208] The narrow passage with towering cliffs at Bab el-Kalabsha was a natural position for exercising territorial control, and the distribution of sites suggests that this -was the border between A-Group and Naqada territory. During Early -A-Group phase/Naqada II, the A-Group people and the Naqada people +was the border between A-Group and Naqada territory. During the Early +A-Group phase, the A-Group people and the Naqada people started interacting in peaceful ways across the ethnic boundary.[^209] Exchange between the Naqada people and the A-Group people made it profitable to belong to the A-Group people as the whole community -prospered from the activity.[^210] The Naqada people retreated from +prospered.[^210] The Naqada people retreated from northern Lower Nubia with the establishment of the southern border of the dynastic and territorial state of Egypt at the First Cataract at the shift between Naqada IIIB and IIIC around 3085 BCE.[^211] The A-Group @@ -1149,7 +1149,7 @@ Shaw, pp. 5-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Bard, Catherine. 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Papers in honour of Fred Wendorf_, edited by Jacek Kabacinski, Marek Chlodnicki, Michal @@ -1186,9 +1186,9 @@ Kobusiewicz, and Malgorzata Winiarska-Kabacinska, pp. 233-249. _Studies in African Archaeology_ 15, Poznań, 2018. Cockitt, Jenefer, Mervyn Harris, Ryan Metcalfe, Roger Forshaw, Norman -Macleod and Rosalie David. "Capturing a Century of Study: The Search +Macleod, and Rosalie David. "Capturing a Century of Study: The Search for the Human Remains from the First Archaeological Survey of Nubia -(1907-1911)." _Antiquity_ 86/332 (2012). +(1907-1911)." _Antiquity_ Project Gallery 86/332 (2012). Crevecoeur, Isabelle, Marie‑Hélène Dias‑Meirinho, Antoine Zazzo, Daniel Antoine, and François Bon. 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Stark, pp. 105-131. +Social Boundaries_, edited by Miriam T. Stark, pp. 105-31. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998. Manzo, Andrea. "Clash of Civilisations on the First Cataract? A Southern Point of View, from Old Assumptions to New -Complexities." *Ägypten und Levante* 30 (2020): pp. 101-113. +Complexities." *Ägypten und Levante* 30 (2020): pp. 101-13. Marshall, Jenail H. and Michele Buzon. "Bioarchaeology in the Nile Valley." _Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology_. 2023. Martin, Debra L. and Ryan P. Harrod. "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence." _American Journal of Physical Anthropology_ -156 (2015): pp. 116-145. +156 (2015): pp. 116-45. Matić, Uroš. _Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs: Past and Present Approaches in Egyptology_. Cambridge University Press, 2020. @@ -1367,7 +1367,7 @@ Present Approaches in Egyptology_. Cambridge University Press, 2020. McMahon, Augusta. 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In _Nubian Studies 1998: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the International Society of Nubian Studies_, edited by -Timothy Kendall, pp. 134-144. Boston: Department of African-American +Timothy Kendall, pp. 134-44. Boston: Department of African-American Studies, 2004. -Okumura, Mercedes and Yun Ysi Siew. "An Osteological Study of Trophy +Okumura, Mercedes, and Yun Ysi Siew. "An Osteological Study of Trophy Heads: Unveiling the Headhunting Practice in Borneo." _International -Journal of Osteoarchaeology_ 23.6 (2013): pp. 685-697. +Journal of Osteoarchaeology_ 23.6 (2013): pp. 685-97. Otto, Ton, Henrik Thrane, and Helle Vandkilde. "Warfare and Society. Archaeological and Social Anthropological Perspectives." In _Warfare and @@ -1412,9 +1412,9 @@ Menschen_, edited by Alfried Wieczorek and Wilfried Rosendahl, pp. Punjabi Suneel Kumar, Habib ur Rehman, Zahid Ali, and Shaheen Ahmed. "Causes and Management of Zygomatic Bone Fractures at Abbasi Shaheed Hospital Karachi (Analysis of 82 Patients)." _Journal of the Pakistan -Medical Association_ 61/1 (2011): pp. 36-39. +Medical Association_ 61/1 (2011): pp. 36-9. -Raue, Dietrich. "Cultural Diversity of Nubia in the Later 3rd--mid +Raue, Dietrich. "Cultural Diversity of Nubia in the Later 3rd-mid 2nd Millennium BC." In _Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Volume 1_, edited by Dietrich Raue, pp. 293-334. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019. @@ -1424,7 +1424,7 @@ Department, 1910. Robinson, Christopher Michael. "Fractures of the Clavicle in the Adult: Epidemiology and Classification." _The Journal of Bone and Joint -Surgery. British volume_ 80/3 (1998): pp. 476-484. +Surgery. British volume_ 80/3 (1998): pp. 476-84. Roosens, Eugeen E. _Creating Ethnicity: The Process of Ethnogenesis_. Sage Publications, Inc, 1989. @@ -1432,7 +1432,7 @@ Sage Publications, Inc, 1989. Roy, Jane. *The Politics of Trade: Egypt and Lower Nubia in the 4th Millennium BC*. Leiden: Brill, 2011. -Smith, Harry S. "The Nubian B-Group," _Kush_, 14 (1966): pp. 69-124. +Smith, Harry S. "The Nubian B-Group," *Kush* 14 (1966): pp. 69-124. Smith, Harry S. "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower Nubia." In _Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam_, @@ -1441,7 +1441,7 @@ edited by W. Vivian Davies, pp. 92-111. London: British Museum Press, 1991. Smith, Stuart Tyson. "Nubia and Egypt: Interaction, Acculturation, and Secondary State Formation from the Third to First Millennium BC." In _Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change, and -Archaeology_, edited by James G. Cusick, pp. 256-287. Carbondale: +Archaeology_, edited by James G. Cusick, pp. 256-87. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1998. Smith, Stuart Tyson. _Wretched Kush: Ethnic Identities and Boundaries in @@ -1454,15 +1454,15 @@ Stevenson, Alice. _The Predynastic Egyptian Cemetery of el-Gerzeh. Social Identities and Mortuary Practices_. Vol. 186. Leuven: Peeters, 2009. Stevenson, Alice. "Social Relationships in Predynastic Burials." -_Journal of Egyptian Archaeology_ 95/1 (2009): pp. 175-192. +_Journal of Egyptian Archaeology_ 95/1 (2009): pp. 175-92. Stevenson, Alice. "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation." -_Journal of Archaeological Research_ 24/4 (2016): pp. 421-468. +_Journal of Archaeological Research_ 24/4 (2016): pp. 421-68. Takamiya, Izumi H. "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries, Lower Nubia: Towards an Understanding of Exchange Systems between the Naqada Culture and the A-Group Culture." _The Journal of Egyptian -Archaeology_, 90/1 (2004), pp. 35--62. +Archaeology_, 90/1 (2004), pp. 35-62. Trigger, Bruce G. _History and Settlement in Lower Nubia_. New Haven: Department of Anthropology, 1965. @@ -1472,18 +1472,18 @@ Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - AD 500_. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Usai, Donatella. "Other Stone Tools: Axes, Mace-heads and Grinding stones." In _A Neolithic Cemetery in the Northern Dongola Reach -(Sudan): Excavation at Site 12_, edited by Sandro Salvatori and Donatella Usai, pp. 53-58, Oxford: BAR (2008). +(Sudan): Excavation at Site 12_, edited by Sandro Salvatori and Donatella Usai, pp. 53-8, Oxford: BAR (2008). Vandkilde, Helle. "Warriors and Warrior Institutions in Copper Age Europe." In _Warfare and Society. Archaeological and Social Anthropological Perspectives_, edited by Ton Otto, Henrik Thrane, and Helle Vandkilde, pp. 393-422. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2006. -Voss, Barbara L. "What's new? Rethinking ethnogenesis in the -archaeology of colonialism." _American Antiquity_ 80/4 (2015): pp. 655-670. +Voss, Barbara L. "What's new? Rethinking Ethnogenesis in the +Archaeology of Colonialism." _American Antiquity_ 80/4 (2015): pp. 655-70. Walker, Phillip L. "A Bioarchaeological Perspective on the History of -Violence." _Annual Review of Anthropology_ 30 (2001): pp. 573-596. +Violence." _Annual Review of Anthropology_ 30 (2001): pp. 573-96. Weik, Terrance M. "The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis." _Annual Review of Anthropology_ 43 (2014): pp. 291-305. @@ -1496,9 +1496,9 @@ Wengrow, David. _The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. -Wengrow, David and David Graeber. "'Many Seasons Ago': Slavery and Its +Wengrow, David, and David Graeber. "'Many Seasons Ago': Slavery and Its Rejection among Foragers on the Pacific Coast of North America." -_American Anthropologist_ 120/2 (2018): pp. 237-249. +_American Anthropologist_ 120/2 (2018): pp. 237-49. Wengrow, David, Michael Dee, Sarah Foster, Alice Stevenson, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the @@ -1530,7 +1530,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^8]: Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile - Valley," pp. 102-103. + Valley," pp. 102-3. [^9]: Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. 431. [^10]: @@ -1550,7 +1550,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 123. -[^14]: Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group sites_; Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy;" Roy, _The Politics of Trade_; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group;" Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia." +[^14]: Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group sites_; Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy"; Roy, _The Politics of Trade_; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group"; Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia." [^15]: See for instance Takamiya, "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries," p. 56 for the establishment of the contact, and @@ -1566,18 +1566,18 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Some examples from the last 20 years: Hendrickx, "Predynastic---Early Dynastic Chronology," p. 71 and p. 76; Wengrow, _The Archaeology of Early Egypt_, p. 75; Bard, "Political Economies - of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State;" Gatto, + of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State"; Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia," p. 127 and p. 129. [^18]: Also spelled Kubaniya and Kubaniyeh. [^19]: Some examples from the last 20 years: Edwards, _The Nubian past_, - pp. 68-69; Nordström, "The Nubian A-Group," p. 134; Takamiya, + pp. 68-9; Nordström, "The Nubian A-Group," p. 134; Takamiya, "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries," p. 41; Friedman, "The Nubian Cemetery at Hierakonpolis," p. 62; Török, _Between Two Worlds_, p. 35; Roy, _The Politics of Trade_, p. 49; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. 199; Meurer, "Nubians in - Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period to the New Kingdom," p. 290). + Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period to the New Kingdom," p. 290. [^20]: Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian @@ -1589,14 +1589,14 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 336. [^22]: Earle and Kristiansen, "Organizing Bronze Age Societies," p. 243. -[^23]: Otto, Thrane, and Vandkilde, "Warfare and Society," pp. 16-17. +[^23]: Otto, Thrane, and Vandkilde, "Warfare and Society," pp. 16-7. [^24]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. xiii. -[^25]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-11. +[^25]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-1. [^26]: Barth, "Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analysis of Ethnicity," p. 12; Smith, "Ethnicity," p. 1. -[^27]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-11. +[^27]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-1. [^28]: E.g., Smith, _Wretched Kush_, p. 14. [^29]: Eriksen, _Ethnicity and Nationalism_, p. 12. [^30]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. 75 and p. 78. @@ -1604,14 +1604,14 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^32]: Bourdieu, _Outline of a Theory of Practice_, p. 72. [^33]: Bentley, "Ethnicity and Practice," p. 27. [^34]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. 120. -[^35]: Smith, _Wretched Kush_, pp. 18-19. +[^35]: Smith, _Wretched Kush_, pp. 18-9. [^36]: Maceachern, "Scale, Style, and Cultural Variation," p. 123. [^37]: See Barth, "Introduction," p. 14. [^38]: Gosselain, "Materializing Identities." [^39]: Hodder, _Symbols in Action_, p. 22 and p. 58. [^40]: Emberling, "Ethnicity in Complex Societies," p. 318; Manzo, - "Clash of Civilization on the First Cataract?" p. 103; Smith, + "Clash of Civilization on the First Cataract?," p. 103; Smith, _Wretched Kush_, p. 31; Stevenson, _The Predynastic Egyptian Cemetery of el-Gerzeh_, p. 77. @@ -1637,7 +1637,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Wengrow, "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt," p. 96; Wengrow et al. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 105; Haaland and Haaland, "Early Farming Societies along - the Nile\*," p. 548. + the Nile," p. 548. [^49]: Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. 432. [^50]: @@ -1659,7 +1659,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^53]: E.g., Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian History," p. 110; Raue, "Cultural Diversity of Nubia in the Later - 3rd--mid 2nd Millennium BC," p. 294. + 3rd-mid 2nd Millennium BC," p. 294. [^54]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -1678,26 +1678,26 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^58]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-45. [^59]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 257-259. See also Smith, "The + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 257-9. See also Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower Nubia," p. 98; - Roy, _The Politics of Trade_, pp. 68-69. + Roy, _The Politics of Trade_, pp. 68-9. [^60]: See Hendrickx, "Predynastic-Early Dynastic Chronology," table II/1.4b. -[^61]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-57. +[^61]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-7. [^62]: Aston, Harrell, and Shaw, "Stone," p. 57. -[^63]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-38. -[^64]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 55-56 -[^65]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 141-144. +[^63]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-8. +[^64]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 55-6 +[^65]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 141-4. [^66]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, fig. 77. [^67]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 257-262. + 257-62. [^68]: See Nordström, "Gender and Social Structure in the Nubian @@ -1708,9 +1708,9 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Pastoralist," p. 10 for pastoral labor structured by gender (and age). -[^70]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 142-144. +[^70]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 142-4. [^71]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, fig. 92/1-2. -[^72]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-57. +[^72]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-7. [^73]: Stevenson, "Social Relationships in Predynastic Burials," p. 191. [^74]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 142, p. 144, @@ -1720,7 +1720,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Wengrow et al. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 103. -[^76]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 113-114. +[^76]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 113-4. [^77]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 269 and p. 285. @@ -1728,28 +1728,28 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^78]: See above. [^79]: Hafsaas-Tsaoks, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 266-270. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 266-70. [^80]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, table 18. -[^81]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 134-135. -[^82]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 133-137. +[^81]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 134-5. +[^82]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 133-7. [^83]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 271-273. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 271-3. [^84]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 211. [^85]: - Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 211-214 and + Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 211-4 and fig. 145. [^86]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 272. -[^87]: See Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-213. +[^87]: See Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-3. [^88]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 272. @@ -1770,11 +1770,11 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^92]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 169-173. + 169-73. [^93]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 258 and pp. - 262-265. + 262-5. [^94]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, fig. 212/2-5, 12. [^95]: Stevenson, _The Predynastic Egyptian Cemetery of el-Gerzeh_, p. 145. @@ -1785,7 +1785,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^98]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 316-317. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 316-7. [^99]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -1793,7 +1793,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^100]: See Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the - Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 285-294 for more details. + Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 285-94 for more details. [^101]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -1810,7 +1810,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^105]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 116. [^106]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 327-328. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 327-8. [^107]: Crevecoeur et al., "New Insights on Interpersonal Violence in @@ -1818,12 +1818,12 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Sahaba." [^108]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181. -[^109]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 137-139. +[^109]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 137-9. [^110]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 116-117. + 116-7. -[^111]: Friedman, "Hierakonpolis," pp. 38-39. +[^111]: Friedman, "Hierakonpolis," pp. 38-9. [^112]: Droux and Pieri, "Further Adventures at HK6: The 2010 Season," p. 4. @@ -1838,7 +1838,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Judd, "Continuity of Interpersonal Violence between Nubian Communities," p. 324 with references. -[^120]: Judd, "Trauma in the City of Kerma," pp. 46-48. +[^120]: Judd, "Trauma in the City of Kerma," pp. 46-8. [^121]: Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 121. @@ -1846,7 +1846,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^122]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 182. [^123]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 330-332. + 330-2. [^124]: Filer, "Ancient Egypt and Nubia as a Source of Information for @@ -1865,7 +1865,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^128]: Blood-stained bones were observed in some well-preserved human remains, see Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human - Remains_, pp. 329-330. However, stains from decomposed blood are + Remains_, pp. 329-30. However, stains from decomposed blood are usually absent in violent deaths uncovered from archaeological contexts, see Walker, "A Bioarchaeological Perspective on the History of Violence," p. 578. @@ -1875,14 +1875,14 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. of Violence," p. 124. [^130]: - E.g., Molleson, "The Nubian Pathological Collection;" Filer, + E.g., Molleson, "The Nubian Pathological Collection"; Filer, "Ancient Egypt and Nubia as a Source of Information for Cranial - Injuries;" Judd and Redfern, "Trauma," p. 362; Cockitt, et al. + Injuries"; Judd and Redfern, "Trauma," p. 362; Cockitt et al. "Capturing a Century of Study." [^131]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 331-332. + 331-2. [^132]: See Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the @@ -1891,7 +1891,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^133]: Marshall and Buzon, "Bioarchaeology in the Nile Valley." [^134]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 331-332. + 331-2. [^135]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 313. [^136]: @@ -1942,10 +1942,10 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. p. 108. [^156]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 134. -[^157]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-214. +[^157]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-4. [^158]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. - 155-156; Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 213. + 155-6; Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 213. [^159]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -1953,15 +1953,15 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^160]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 262 and pp. - 264-265 + 264-5 [^161]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, - pp. 170-173. + pp. 170-3. [^162]: Gilbert, _Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt_, pp. - 42-43. + 42-3. [^163]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 182. [^164]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane." @@ -1969,11 +1969,11 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^166]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 316. [^167]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 279-280. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 279-80. [^168]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 313. [^169]: Wilkinson, _Early Dynastic Egypt_, p. 266. -[^170]: Wengrow, _The Archaeology of Early Egypt_, pp. 116-123. +[^170]: Wengrow, _The Archaeology of Early Egypt_, pp. 116-23. [^171]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 327. [^172]: Wilkinson, _Early Dynastic Egypt_, p. 266. [^173]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 330. @@ -1981,7 +1981,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 281. -[^175]: Buzon, "Bioarchaeology of Nubia," pp. 1052-1053. +[^175]: Buzon, "Bioarchaeology of Nubia," pp. 1052-3. [^176]: Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th Millennia BCE." [^177]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -2012,7 +2012,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^184]: E.g., Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group Sites_, p. 28; Edwards, - _The Nubian Past_, p. 70; GLÜCK, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. 209. + _The Nubian Past_, p. 70; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. 209. [^185]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -2025,7 +2025,7 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^188]: Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th millennia BCE," pp. - 129-130. + 129-30. [^189]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging @@ -2074,15 +2074,15 @@ Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. [^209]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 336-337. + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 336-7. [^210]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy." [^211]: Seidlmayer, "Town and State in the Early Old Kingdom," pp. - 112-113. + 112-3. [^212]: Smith, "Nubia and Egypt," p. 259; Edwards, _The Nubian Past_, p. - 73; Török, _Between Two Worlds_, pp. 50-51; Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on + 73; Török, _Between Two Worlds_, pp. 50-1; Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. - 376-381. + 376-81. diff --git a/content/article/honegger.md b/content/article/honegger.md index 0e70177..159d5ec 100644 --- a/content/article/honegger.md +++ b/content/article/honegger.md @@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ with the Egyptian Kingdom are anecdotal. Only a few tombs from the Kerma period (2550-1480 BC) have been reported by Charles Bonnet in his excavation reports on the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma.[^1] His most important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of a naturally -mummified archer (Fig. 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase +mummified archer (Figure 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase (2300-2150 BC), the same tomb contained the body of a young man, whose head had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows @@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known thanks to the work of George A. Reisner, undertaken at the beginning of the 20th century.[^6] Since then, excavations were undertaken between 1979 and 1999 by Charles Bonnet, who investigated 27 sectors spread over -its entire surface (Fig. 2), and between 2008 and 2018, we have +its entire surface (Figure 2), and between 2008 and 2018, we have undertaken systematic excavations in sectors of the early stages of the cemetery (2550-1950 BC), that correspond to the formation of the Kingdom of Kerma.[^7] They provide previously unpublished information on the @@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ kingdom and its domination over a large part of Upper Nubia. As part of our programme on the evolution of society in Early Kerma, we have reinvestigated and completed the excavations of Sectors 23, 27, and -8, and have opened Sectors 28, 29, 30, and 31 (Fig. 3). The tombs have +8, and have opened Sectors 28, 29, 30, and 31 (Figure 3). The tombs have been systematically excavated, taking into account information on the surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of @@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ absolute chronology was constructed using 23 14C dates that were confronted with the typology of Kerma pottery and Egyptian imports, and this makes it possible to distinguish five successive phases between 2550 and 1950 BC: *Kerma ancien 0, I, II, III,* and *Kerma moyen I* -(Fig. 3).[^8] +(Figure 3).[^8] ![Map of the Early Kerma and early Middle Kerma sectors in the Eastern Cemetery. From the initial installation in Kerma ancien 0 (2550-2450 BC) to the emergence of the first royal tomb in Kerma moyen I (2050-1950 BC), the dimensions of the tombs increase, the rituals become more complex and the hierarchisation of society increases until the appearance of a royalty.](../static/images/honegger/Fig3.jpg "Map of the Early Kerma and early Middle Kerma sectors in the Eastern Cemetery. From the initial installation in Kerma ancien 0 (2550-2450 BC) to the emergence of the first royal tomb in Kerma moyen I (2050-1950 BC), the dimensions of the tombs increase, the rituals become more complex and the hierarchisation of society increases until the appearance of a royalty.") @@ -130,14 +130,14 @@ well as bucrania in front of some tumuli. Tombs with multiple burials are also more frequent, indicating the development of accompanying or sacrificed people, which will increase significantly in the succeeding periods. The distinction between male and female graves becomes -systematic and stereotyped (Fig. 4). If the buried women are +systematic and stereotyped (Figure 4). If the buried women are systematically endowed with a stick, an ornament, and sometimes particular objects or tools such as potter\'s tools, the male tombs are systematically endowed with a bow.[^10] During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed -that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). +that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Figure 5). ![Graves of an archer and of a woman with a stick of the Kerma ancien II Phase (2300-2100 BC), found in Sector 23 of the Easter Cemetery of Kerma. The grave of the archer contained two individuals: a young man in the central position and a woman placed by his side. A dog, a bow, an ostrich feathers fan, and a bronze mirror accompanied the young man. The grave with a wooden stick contained a woman aged 20-29 years. Both graves were partially plundered and a part of the skeletons is here reconstructed.](../static/images/honegger/Fig4.jpg "Graves of an archer and of a woman with a stick of the Kerma ancien II Phase (2300-2100 BC), found in Sector 23 of the Easter Cemetery of Kerma. The grave of the archer contained two individuals: a young man in the central position and a woman placed by his side. A dog, a bow, an ostrich feathers fan, and a bronze mirror accompanied the young man. The grave with a wooden stick contained a woman aged 20-29 years. Both graves were partially plundered and a part of the skeletons is here reconstructed.") **~~Figure 4. Graves of an archer and of a woman with a stick of the Kerma ancien II Phase (2300-2100 BC), found in Sector 23 of the Easter Cemetery of Kerma. The grave of the archer contained two individuals: a young man in the central position and a woman placed by his side. A dog, a bow, an ostrich feathers fan, and a bronze mirror accompanied the young man. The grave with a wooden stick contained a woman aged 20-29 years. Both graves were partially plundered and a part of the skeletons is here reconstructed.~~** @@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ which would culminate at the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. The central inhumations in the largest tumuli are supposed to be the graves of the rulers; the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to free men and women.[^12] In certain instances a mud-brick chapel was -erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13] +erected on the west side of the tumulus (Figure 6).[^13] During Classic Kerma the diameter of the largest graves is between 30 and 90 meters. The three most famous ones were built to a @@ -189,13 +189,13 @@ south of the ancient town of Kerma and dates about 1480 BC.[^16] # The archers' graves -From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Fig. +From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Figure 3) all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is attested, the smallest clue being the presence of the string made of -twisted sinews, probably from sheep or goats (Fig. 7). In view of the +twisted sinews, probably from sheep or goats (Figure 7). In view of the number of graves excavated, we can therefore suppose that the presence of men or boys with weapons is systematic for the earlier phases. However, it is not possible to conclude definitively that the presence @@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ assisted by Nubians. It is therefore very likely that they simply did not observe these fleeting remains. In the "Cemetery M" (Middle Kerma, -see fig. 3), the documentation, published with that of the "Cemetery N", +see figure 3), the documentation, published with that of the "Cemetery N", is not better than the latter. No archer or bow was identified. It is only in Classic Kerma that this practice seems to disappear, according to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is of much better quality than @@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ archers were identified. Again, the excavations were carried out almost systematically by Nubian excavators who were not trained to find small remains as bow stings. Nevertheless, Bonnet reports the presence of some archers in Early Kerma sectors, as well as in Middle Kerma sectors. The -famous mummy of an archer (Fig. 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma +famous mummy of an archer (Figure 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma ancien II*) and five other graves of archers were excavated in Sector 23 (*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as @@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ until the end of Middle Kerma.[^27] Let us return to the archers\' graves of the oldest sectors.[^28] Their equipment consists of: -\- One or two bows, single or double-curved (Fig. 8). It seems to us +\- One or two bows, single or double-curved (Figure 8). It seems to us that not too much should be made of this distinction, because the double curvature can be achieved by deformation. It does not necessarily suggest a composite bow, attested in Egypt later and supposedly @@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ alongside the bow. In some instances, the extent of the bow's curvature leads one to believe that it was strung when placed in the tomb. The bow is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity -(Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used +(Figure 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used to manufacture the bows since these had been too severely damaged by termites. @@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ termites. to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6th to 12th Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint -(Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of +(Figure 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of fitting defined by Clark et al.[^32] with one lunate placed at the tip of the arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed @@ -306,8 +306,8 @@ are more slender, like the example in Figure 11. **~~Figure 11. Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~** \- A leather archer\'s wrist-guard of a specific model that seems to be -typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few -cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are +typical of the Kerma tradition (Figure 12). These have been found in a few +cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Figure 13), they are always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known from Egypt in the mass grave of soldiers found at Deir el-Bahari of the 12th @@ -327,16 +327,16 @@ belongs to Nubian archers originally attached to the Kerma culture.[^34] These observations will be the subject of more detailed descriptions in the future, especially the numerous leather objects, which are the subject of a recently started PhD thesis.[^35] Of all the tombs -excavated, only two adult tombs were almost (Fig. 1) or completely -intact (Fig. 13). Enriched by the observations made on the other male +excavated, only two adult tombs were almost (Figure 1) or completely +intact (Figure 13). Enriched by the observations made on the other male tombs, it is possible to reconstruct the appearance of these archers, who resemble quite closely the representations made by the Egyptians, notably those on the temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali, which describe the -expedition of Rameses II in Nubia (Fig. 14). Although later than the +expedition of Rameses II in Nubia (Figure 14). Although later than the tombs where we made our observations, the white earrings of the men depicted in these frescoes are the same as those that first appear in the *Kerma ancien II* phase and continue thereafter. In fact, these -earrings obtained from a Nile shell were found only in male tombs (Fig. +earrings obtained from a Nile shell were found only in male tombs (Figure 15). ![Shell earrings from male graves (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23). Their diameter is between 2 and 3 cm.](../static/images/honegger/Fig15.jpg "Shell earrings from male graves (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23). Their diameter is between 2 and 3 cm.") @@ -344,7 +344,7 @@ earrings obtained from a Nile shell were found only in male tombs (Fig. Similarly, the men of Kerma wear a sheep-skin loincloth that still has its wool, which can be dark brown, beige, or quite frequently -bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). +bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Figure 16). ![Sheep-skin loincloth that still has its wool (Kerma ancien I, Sector 27). The bicoloured fur is composed of black and beige spots.](../static/images/honegger/Fig16.jpg "Sheep-skin loincloth that still has its wool (Kerma ancien I, Sector 27). The bicoloured fur is composed of black and beige spots.") **~~Figure 16. Sheep-skin loincloth that still has its wool (Kerma ancien I, Sector 27). The bicoloured fur is composed of black and beige spots.~~** @@ -358,11 +358,11 @@ Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract where a series of six archers wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very -close to that observed at Kerma (Fig. 17);[^37] among this group, only one archer +close to that observed at Kerma (Figure 17);[^37] among this group, only one archer is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband -in the tomb of a mummified archer (Fig. 1) that could have served to +in the tomb of a mummified archer (Figure 1) that could have served to attach a feather.[^38] @@ -410,7 +410,7 @@ the pit and around the tumulus. Other criteria, such as the animal and human sacrifices -- which some prefer to call accompanying deaths -- also underline the status of the individuals insofar as their number is proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of -Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of exchanges (Fig. +Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of exchanges (Figure 18). ![Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotic goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).](../static/images/honegger/Fig18.jpg "Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotic goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).") @@ -447,12 +447,12 @@ warriors in funeral rites could be a consequence of this. From this point onwards, indications of a more marked social stratification rapidly increase alongside a growth of imports, human sacrifices, bucrania in front of the largest tombs, as well as -red fine ware with black rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18). +red fine ware with black rims, whose decorations multiply (Figure 18). One can imagine a competition between dominant lineages, as we have suggested in an analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their decorations[^47]. This competition would have lead to the emergence of a dominant lineage that concentrated wealth and showed it in funeral rites, -as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear around 2000 BC (Fig. 19). +as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear around 2000 BC (Figure 19). It is from this period onwards that the necropolis will undergo a spectacular development, much more important demographically than natural population growth could allow. Kerma must therefore have been the centre of the @@ -589,7 +589,7 @@ between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500 AD*. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Vogel, Carola. "Fallen Heroes?: Winlock\'s \'Slain Soldiers\' Reconsidered." *The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology* 89 -(2003): pp. 239-245. +(2003): pp. 239-45. Walsh, Carl. "Techniques for Egyptian Eyes: Diplomacy and the Transmission of Cosmetic Practices between Egypt and Kerma." *Journal diff --git a/content/article/roksana.md b/content/article/roksana.md index c195972..5d2d404 100644 --- a/content/article/roksana.md +++ b/content/article/roksana.md @@ -646,7 +646,7 @@ ironic comment on Donald Trump's slogan "Make America Great Again", but it also emphasized the reliance on the powerful Sudanese ancestors dominating in north-eastern Africa during the Kushite period. The people of ancient Nubia were captured as slaves by Egypt. Then the power dynamics between Nubia and Egypt shifted, and Kush ruled Egypt -as pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty (about 747--656 BCE). Thus, art +as pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty (about 747-656 BCE). Thus, art teaches history; the Sudanese cannot live in chains, and they are capable to regain their freedom. Ben Jones, with his artworks, alludes to modern times in world history. His graphics portray al-Bashir and his @@ -775,7 +775,7 @@ draw, even the smallest ones. The slogan *Tasqut bas* addressed to el-Bashir and his regime can be translated as: *Just fall, that's all* or *You'd better fall*.[^78] This slogan was repeated and hash-tagged many times on different kinds of brochures and online -flyers. Almost equally famous was: *Ash -shaab yurid isqat an-nizam*, +flyers. Almost equally famous was: *Ash-shaab yurid isqat an-nizam*, which means: *The people want the regime to fall*.[^79] It appeared on the buildings and bus stops not only in Khartoum but in other towns and even villages. Activists created the hashtags #BlueForSudan and @@ -1049,7 +1049,7 @@ Anonymous. "We Are Fed up! The Power of a New Generation of Sudanese Youth Activists." *Open Democracy*, August 31, 2012. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/we-are-fed-up-power-of-new-generation-of-sudanese-youth-activists/. -Anonymous. "They Were Shouting 'Kill Them.'" *Human Rights Watch*, November 17, 2019.. +Anonymous. "They Were Shouting 'Kill Them.'" *Human Rights Watch*, November 17, 2019. https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/11/18/they-were-shouting-kill-them/sudans-violent-crackdown-protesters-khartoum. Berridge, W. J. *Civil Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The 'Khartoum Springs' @@ -1112,11 +1112,11 @@ Elhassan, Sara. "How Sudanese Art Is Fueling the Revolution." *OkayAfrica*, February 21, 2019. https://www.okayafrica.com/young-sudanese-art-is-fueling-the-protest-revolution/. ----------. "Sudan's revolution Isn't a Fluke; It's Tradition." +Elhassan, Sara. "Sudan's revolution Isn't a Fluke; It's Tradition." *OkayAfrica*, June 14, 2019. https://www.okayafrica.com/sudans-revolution-isnt-a-fluke-its-tradition/. ----------. "Inside Sudan's Viral Revolution: What You Need to Know." +Elhassan, Sara. "Inside Sudan's Viral Revolution: What You Need to Know." *OkayAfrica*, June 21, 2019. https://www.okayafrica.com/inside-sudans-viral-revolution-what-you-need-to-know/. @@ -1178,10 +1178,10 @@ Lamensch, Marie. "Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Alaa Satir." https://www.themantle.com/arts-and-culture/sudans-artists-revolution-1. ----------. "Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Assil +Lamensch, Marie. "Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Assil Diab." ----------. "Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Mounir +Lamensch, Marie. "Sudan's Artists of the Revolution: An Interview with Mounir Khalil." https://www.themantle.com/arts-and-culture/sudans-artists-revolution-2. @@ -1195,7 +1195,7 @@ https://www.scribd.com/article/406480542/The-Scent-Of-Revolution-The-Story-Behin Mondesire, Zachary. *Race after Revolution: Imagining Blackness and Africanity in the "New Sudan,"* Middle East Political Science, 2020 -Murray, Elizabeth. "How Art Helped Propel Sudan's Revolution." *United States Institute of Peace*, November 12 ,2020. +Murray, Elizabeth. "How Art Helped Propel Sudan's Revolution." *United States Institute of Peace*, November 12, 2020. https://www.usip.org/blog/2020/11/how-art-helped-propel-sudans-revolution. Norbrook, Nicholas. "Sudan: Who Is Hemeti, the Butcher of the @@ -1366,7 +1366,7 @@ https://roape.net/2019/09/05/the-revolution-has-emerged-sudans-acute-contradicti [^32]: Bolatito, *Sudan Revolution*. [^33]: Latif, *You Arrogant Racist, We are All Darfur'; Human Rights - Protests as Nation-Building in Sudan,* pp. 54 - 67. + Protests as Nation-Building in Sudan,* pp. 54-67. [^34]: Idris, *Conflict and Politics of Identity in Sudan*. @@ -1384,7 +1384,7 @@ https://roape.net/2019/09/05/the-revolution-has-emerged-sudans-acute-contradicti [^39]: For more information see: Global Gender Gap Report. [^40]: SIHA, "Criminalisation of women in Sudan. A need for - Fundamental Reform," pp. 8-13, 41-43. + Fundamental Reform," pp. 8-13 and pp. 41-3. [^41]: Salih and Wilson, "Sudanese Women Take Lead in Protests Against Bashir." @@ -1461,7 +1461,7 @@ https://roape.net/2019/09/05/the-revolution-has-emerged-sudans-acute-contradicti [^71]: Hassab, "Sudan Uprising." -[^72]: Casciarri and Manfredi, "Freedom, Peace and Justice," p.18. +[^72]: Casciarri and Manfredi, "Freedom, Peace and Justice," p. 18. [^73]: Diab, "Everything You Need to Know About the Sudan Revolution." @@ -1473,7 +1473,7 @@ https://roape.net/2019/09/05/the-revolution-has-emerged-sudans-acute-contradicti [^77]: https://twitter.com/Merg_Salih/status/1401508418708545540 -[^78]: Casciarri and Manfredi, "Freedom, Peace and Justice," pp. 15-17*. +[^78]: Casciarri and Manfredi, "Freedom, Peace and Justice," pp. 15-7. [^79]: Deshayes, Etienne, and Medani, "Reflection." diff --git a/content/article/tsakos.md b/content/article/tsakos.md index 8a3749f..d10b4ff 100644 --- a/content/article/tsakos.md +++ b/content/article/tsakos.md @@ -510,53 +510,53 @@ imaginative reading of the available material. Browne, Gerald Michael. *Old Nubian Texts from Qasr Ibrim*, volume 3. London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1991. ----------. "An Old Nubian Version of the Martyrdom of Saint Epimachus." +Browne, Gerald Michael. "An Old Nubian Version of the Martyrdom of Saint Epimachus." In *50 Years of Polish Excavations in Egypt and the Near East: Acts of the Symposium at the Warsaw University, 1986*, edited by Stefan -Jakobielski and Janusz Karkowski, pp. 74--7. +Jakobielski and Janusz Karkowski, pp. 74-7. Warsaw: Centre Professeur Kazimierz Michalowski d\'Archéologie Méditerranéenne de l\'Université de Varsovie: Centre d\'Archéologie Méditerranéenne de l\'Académie polonaise des Sciences, 1992. ----------. "Old Nubian Literature." In *Études Nubiennes. Conférence de -Genève, Actes du VIIe* *Congrès international d'études nubiennes, 3--8 +Browne, Gerald Michael. "Old Nubian Literature." In *Études Nubiennes. Conférence de +Genève, Actes du VIIe* *Congrès international d'études nubiennes, 3-8 septembre 1990*, I: *Communications principales*, edited by Charles Bonnet, pp. 379-87. Geneva: Compotronic SA, 1992. ---------- . *Old Nubian Dictionary*. Louvain: Peeters, 1996. +Browne, Gerald Michael. *Old Nubian Dictionary*. Louvain: Peeters, 1996. ---------- . *The Old Nubian Martyrdom of Saint George* \[=CSCO 575. -Subsidia t. 101\]. Louvain: Peeters, 1998. +Browne, Gerald Michael. *The Old Nubian Martyrdom of Saint George*. CSCO 575. +Subsidia 101. Louvain: Peeters, 1998. ---------- . "An Old Nubian Translation of the Martyrdom of Saint -Epimachus." *Le muséon* 115 (2002): pp. 69--76. +Browne, Gerald Michael. "An Old Nubian Translation of the Martyrdom of Saint +Epimachus." *Le muséon* 115 (2002): pp. 69-76. Budge, E. A. W. *Miscellaneous Texts in the Dialect of Upper Egypt*. Coptic Texts; Edited with Introductions and English Translations, 5. London: British Museum, 1915. Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope. *Castles and Churches in the -Middle Nile Region* \[=Sudan Antiquities Service Occasional Papers 2\]. +Middle Nile Region*. Sudan Antiquities Service Occasional Papers 2. Khartoum, 1953. Derda, Tomasz, and Adam Łajtar. "Greek and Latin Papyri from the Egypt Exploration Society Excavations at Qasr Ibrim: A Testimony to the Roman Army in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia in the First Years of Augustus." In *Actes du 26e Congrès international de -papyrologie, Genève, 16--21 août 2010*, edited by Paul -Schubert, pp. 183--186. Geneva: Libraire Droz, 2012. +papyrologie, Genève, 16-21 août 2010*, edited by Paul +Schubert, pp. 183-186. Geneva: Libraire Droz, 2012. ---------- . "The Roman Occupation of Qasr Ibrim as Reflected in the +Derda, Tomasz, and Adam Łajtar. "The Roman Occupation of Qasr Ibrim as Reflected in the Greek Papyri from the Site." In *Qasr Ibrim, between Egypt and Africa*, edited by Jacques Van der Vliet and Joost Hagen, pp. 105-10. Leuven: Peeters, 2013. Drzewiecki, Mariusz. *Mighty Kingdoms and Their Forts. The Role of Fortified Sites in the Fall of Meroe and Rise of Medieval Realms -in Upper Nubia* \[=Nubia VI\]. Warsaw: Institute of Mediterranean and +in Upper Nubia*. Nubia VI. Warsaw: Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2016. ---------- . "Roman Type Forts in the Middle Nile Valley. Late Antique +Drzewiecki, Mariusz. "Roman Type Forts in the Middle Nile Valley. Late Antique Fortlets between Patterns of Roman Military Architecture and Local Tradition." In *Experiencing the Frontier and the Frontier Experience. Barbarian Perspectives and Roman Strategies to Deal with New Threats*, @@ -564,19 +564,19 @@ edited by Alexander Rubel and Hans-Ulrich Voß, pp. 179-92. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2020. Edwards, David N. "The Christianisation of Nubia: Some -Archaeological Pointers." *Sudan & Nubia* 5 (2001): pp. 89--96. +Archaeological Pointers." *Sudan & Nubia* 5 (2001): pp. 89-96. ---------- . "Slavery and Slaving in the Medieval and Post-Medieval +Edwards, David N. "Slavery and Slaving in the Medieval and Post-Medieval Kingdoms of the Middle Nile." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 168 (2011): pp. 79-108. -Esbroeck, Michel van. "Epimachus of Pelusium, Saint." In +Van Esbroeck, Michel. "Epimachus of Pelusium, Saint." In *The Coptic Encyclopedia*, vol. 3, edited by Aziz S. Atiya, pp. 965b-7a. New York: MacMillan, 1991. \[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/792, last accessed in February 2021\]. ---------- . "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint." In *The Coptic +Van Esbroeck, Michel. "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint." In *The Coptic Encyclopedia*, vol. 5, edited by Aziz S. Atiya, pp. 1592a-4a. New York: MacMillan, 1991. \[https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/cce/id/1327, last @@ -587,8 +587,8 @@ argyraspides, chalcaspides." *Revue des études anciennes* 98 (1996): pp. 53-63. Francigny, Vincent. *Les coutumes funéraires dans le -royaume de Méroé : Les enterrements privés* \[=Orient et Méditerranée -22\]. Paris: Boccard, 2016. +royaume de Méroé : Les enterrements privés*. Orient et Méditerranée +22. Paris: Boccard, 2016. Frend, William H.C. "The Cult of Military Saints in Christian Nubia." In *Theologia Crucis -- Signum Crucis. Festschrift für @@ -596,7 +596,7 @@ Erich Dinkler zum 70. Geburtstag*, edited by Carl Andersen and Günter Klein, pp. 155-63. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1979. ---------- . "Fragments of a Version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr +Frend, William H.C. "Fragments of a Version of the Acta S. Georgii from Q\'asr Ibrim." *Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum* 32 (1989): pp. 89-104. Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J. *A Reference Grammar of Old @@ -605,7 +605,7 @@ Nubian*. Leuven: Peeters, 2021. Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J., Vincent Laisney, Giovanni Ruffini, Alexandros Tsakos, Kerstin Weber, and Petra Weschenfelder, *The Old -Nubian Texts from Attiri*. \[=Dotawo Monographs 1\]. n/a: Punctum, 2016. +Nubian Texts from Attiri*. Dotawo Monographs 1. n/a: Punctum, 2016. Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J., and Alexandros Tsakos. "Apostolic Memoirs in Old Nubian", In *Parabiblica Coptica*, edited by @@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ Ivan Miroshnikov. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming. Griffith, Francis Llewellyn. "Christian Documents from Nubia." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 14 (1928): pp. 117-46. -Hafsaas, Henriette, and Alexandros Tsakos. "Michael and other archangels behind an eight-pointed cross-symbol from Medieval Nubia: A view from Sai Island in northern Sudan," *Pharos Journal of Theology* \[DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.102.12\]. +Hafsaas, Henriette, and Alexandros Tsakos. "Michael and Other Archangels behind an Eight-Pointed Cross-Symbol from Medieval Nubia: A View from Sai Island in Northern Sudan," *Pharos Journal of Theology* \[DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.102.12\]. Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of Bronze and Expressions of Masculinity: The Emergence of a Warrior Class at @@ -625,7 +625,7 @@ Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt: A Warfare Perspective on the History of the A-Group People in Lower Nubia during the 4th millennium BCE*. PhD thesis. University of Bergen, 2015. -Hendrickx, Benjamin. "The "Lord of the Mountain". A Study +Hendrickx, Benjamin. "The 'Lord of the Mountain'. A Study of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*." *Le Muséon* 124/3-4 (2011): pp. 303-55. @@ -633,33 +633,33 @@ Hägg, Tomas. "Titles and Honorific Epithets in Nubian Greek texts." *Symbolae Osloenses* 65 (1990): pp. 147-77. Jakobielski, Stefan. *Pachoras/Faras: The Wall Paintings -from the Cathedrals of Aetios, Paulos and Petros* \[=PAM Monograph -Series 4\]. Warsaw: Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology 2017. +from the Cathedrals of Aetios, Paulos and Petros*. PAM Monograph +Series 4. Warsaw: Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology 2017. Khalil, Mokhtar M. *Wörterbuch der nubischen Sprache (Fadidja/Mahas-Dialekt)*. Warsaw 1996. Koukounas, Konstantinos, *Georgios Phrantzes, Chronicon*. -Athens: Politeia 2018 (in Greek: [Κουκούνας Κωνσταντίνος -(επ.), *Χρονικό. Φραντζής Γεώργιος (Σφραντζής)*. Αθήνα: Πολιτεία 2018) +Athens: Politeia 2018 [in Greek: Κουκούνας Κωνσταντίνος +(επ.), *Χρονικό. Φραντζής Γεώργιος (Σφραντζής)*. Αθήνα: Πολιτεία 2018]. Lenoble, Patrice. *El-Hobagi: Une necropole de rang -imperial au Soudan Central* (Fouilles de l\'Institut Francais -d\'Archeologie Orientale). Cairo: IFAO, 2018. +imperial au Soudan Central*. Fouilles de l\'Institut Francais +d\'Archeologie Orientale. Cairo: IFAO, 2018. Łajtar, Adam. "On the Name of the Capital of the Nubian Kingdom of Makuria." *Przeglad Humanistyczny* 2 (2013), pp. 127-34. ---------- . *A Late Christian Pilgrimage Centre in Nubia. The Evidence -of Wall Inscriptions in the Upper Church at Banganarti* \[=Journal of -Juristic Papyrology Supplement Series XXXIX\]. Leuven: Peeters, 2020. +Łajtar, Adam. *A Late Christian Pilgrimage Centre in Nubia. The Evidence +of Wall Inscriptions in the Upper Church at Banganarti*. Journal of +Juristic Papyrology Supplement Series XXXIX. Leuven: Peeters, 2020. ---------- . "The so-called Kudanbes Inscription in Deir Anba Hadra (St. +Łajtar, Adam. "The so-called Kudanbes Inscription in Deir Anba Hadra (St. Simeon Monastery) near Aswan: An Attempt at a New Reading and -Interpretation." in preparation. +Interpretation," in preparation. Martens-Czarnecka, Małgorzata, *The Wall Paintings from -the Monastery on Kom H in Dongola* \[=Nubia III, Dongola 3\]. Warsaw: +the Monastery on Kom H in Dongola*. Nubia III, Dongola 3. Warsaw: Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology 2011. Mason, Hugh J. *Greek Terms for Roman Institutions: A @@ -690,9 +690,9 @@ London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1988. Ruffini, Giovanni. *Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic History*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. ---------- . *The Bishop, the Eparch, and the King. Old Nubian Texts from -Qasr Ibrim (P. QI IV)* \[=Journal of Juristic Papyrology Supplement -Series XXII\]. Warsaw, 2014. +Ruffini, Giovanni. *The Bishop, the Eparch, and the King. Old Nubian Texts from +Qasr Ibrim (P. QI IV)*. Journal of Juristic Papyrology Supplement +Series XXII. Warsaw, 2014. Seignobos, Robin. *L'Égypte et la Nubie à l'époque médiévale. Élaboration et transmission des savoirs historiographiques @@ -706,39 +706,39 @@ Tsakos, Alexandros. "Miscellanea Epigraphica Nubica III: Epimachos of Attiri: a Warrior Saint of Late Christian Nubia." *Collectanea Christiana Orientalia* 9 (2012): pp. 205-23. ---------- . "The Liber Institutionis Michaelis in Medieval Nubia." +Tsakos, Alexandros. "The Liber Institutionis Michaelis in Medieval Nubia." *Dotawo* 1 (2014): pp. 51-62. ---------- . *The Greek Manuscripts on Parchment discovered at site +Tsakos, Alexandros. *The Greek Manuscripts on Parchment discovered at site SR022.A in the Fourth Cataract region, North Sudan*. PhD thesis. Humboldt University, Berlin, 2018. ---------- . "Terms for Boats and Navigation in Old Nubia." In *Graffiti +Tsakos, Alexandros. "Terms for Boats and Navigation in Old Nubia." In *Graffiti as Devotion Along the Nile and Beyond*, edited by -Emberling, Geoff and Suzanne Davis, p. 50. +Geoff Emberling and Suzanne Davis, p. 50. Kelsey Museum Publications 16, 2019. ---------- . "Textual finds from Cerre Matto." In *Oriental Institute of +Tsakos, Alexandros. "Textual Finds from Cerre Matto." In *Oriental Institute of Chicago Nubian Expedition monograph series, vol. 13*, Chicago, forthcoming. ---------- . "Sources about the cult and persona of the archangel Michael +Tsakos, Alexandros. "Sources about the Cult and Persona of the Archangel Michael in Nubia". In *Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Nubian Studies*, edited by Vincent Rondot. Paris, forthcoming*.* ---------- . "The Christianization of Nubia". In preparation. +Tsakos, Alexandros. "The Christianization of Nubia," in preparation. Vantini, Giovanni Fr. *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*. -Warsaw -- Heidelberg, 1975. +Warsaw-Heidelberg, 1975. Van der Vliet, Jacques. *Catalogue of the Coptic Inscriptions in the Sudan National Museum at Khartoum (I. Khartoum -Copt.)* \[=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 121\]. Leuven: Peeters 2003. +Copt.)*. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 121. Leuven: Peeters 2003. Welsby, Derek A. *The Kingdom of Kush. The Napatan and Meroitic Empires*. London: British Museum Press, 1996. ---------- . *The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and +Welsby, Derek A. *The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile*. London: British Museum Press, 2012. Zielińska, Dobrochna, and Alexandros Tsakos. @@ -813,7 +813,7 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. [^20]: Łajtar, *A Late Christian Pilgrimage Centre in Nubia. The Evidence of Wall Inscriptions in the Upper Church at - Banganarti*, pp. 383-85 (inscription nr. 578). The citation is from + Banganarti*, pp. 383-5 (inscription nr. 578). The citation is from p. 384. [^21]: Idem, p. 562-3 and inscription 964. @@ -845,7 +845,7 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. Antoine," p. 160 and ill. IV. [^30]: Esbroeck, "Mercurius of Caesarea, Saint," pp. - 1593b-1594a. + 1593b-4a. [^31]: See Frend, "The Cult of Military Saints in Christian Nubia," p. 157 for references. @@ -898,7 +898,7 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. [^44]: It should be noted that two more terms may be linked with ⲅⲟⲩⲉⲓ for "shield": the first is ⲅⲟⲩϣ (or ⲅⲟⲩⲥ), perhaps from ⲅⲟⲩⲉⲓ for - "shield" and ϣⲁ for "spear", but [Osman, "The + "shield" and ϣⲁ for "spear", but Osman, "The Post-Medieval Kingdom of Kokka: A Means for a Better Understanding of the Administration of the Medieval Kingdom of Dongola," p. 191 proposes an alternative explanation of the word, albeit still @@ -909,27 +909,27 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. argyraspides, chalcaspides." [^46]: Maspero, *Organisation militaire de l'Égypte - byzantine*, pp. 66-68. + byzantine*, pp. 66-8. [^47]: For an up-to-date discussion of the issue, see Simmons, *Nubia, Ethiopia, and the Crusading World, 1095-1402*. [^48]: Ostrogorsky, "Observations on the Aristocracy in - Byzantium," pp. 13-14 + Byzantium," pp. 13-4 [^49]: Koukounas, *Georgios Phrantzes, Chronicon*. -[^50]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*, p. +[^50]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*, pp. 369-70. [^51]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*, p. 329; Seignobos, *L'Égypte et la Nubie à l'époque - médiévale*, p. 93-112. + médiévale*, pp. 93-112. [^52]: Vantini, *Oriental Sources Concerning Nubia*, p. 639; Seignobos, *L'Égypte et la Nubie à l'époque - médiévale*, p. 53-91. + médiévale*, pp. 53-91. [^53]: Łajtar, "On the Name of the Capital of the Nubian Kingdom of Makuria." @@ -941,8 +941,8 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. "Representations of the Archangel Michael in Wall Paintings from Christian Nubia," pp. 85-6. -[^56]: See Hafsaas and Tsakos, "Michael and other archangels behind an eight-pointed cross-symbol from Medieval Nubia: A view from Sai Island in northern Sudan"; Tsakos, "Sources about the cult and persona of the - archangel Michael in Nubia." +[^56]: See Hafsaas and Tsakos, "Michael and Other Archangels behind an Eight-Pointed Cross-Symbol from Medieval Nubia: A View from Sai Island in Northern Sudan"; Tsakos, "Sources about the Cult and Persona of the + Archangel Michael in Nubia." [^57]: For the use of the title archistratēgos for the archangel Raphael, see Łajtar, *A Late Christian Pilgrimage @@ -973,8 +973,8 @@ Vogel, pp. 113-43. Cologne: Heinrich Barth Institut 2013. 419-22. [^64]: For a discussion framed as background for an analysis of the - title "Eparch of Nobadia," see Hendrickx, "The "Lord - of the Mountain". A Study of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*." + title "Eparch of Nobadia," see Hendrickx, "The 'Lord + of the Mountain'. A Study of the Nubian *eparchos of Nobadia*." [^65]: Mason, *Greek Terms for Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and Analysis*, pp. 138-40. diff --git a/content/article/urosmatic.md b/content/article/urosmatic.md index 524275a..03f1552 100644 --- a/content/article/urosmatic.md +++ b/content/article/urosmatic.md @@ -328,9 +328,9 @@ representations were later damaged in the genital area. There are two groups and in between them there are cattle. The groups are flanked with men who lead them forward. -![Relief blocks from the north wall of M250](../static/images/matic/fig1.jpg "Relief blocks from the north wall of M250") +![Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140-141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).](../static/images/matic/fig1.jpg "Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140-141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).") -**~~Figure 1. Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 in the sequence east-west (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140--141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).~~** +**~~Figure 1. Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 in the sequence east-west (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140-141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).~~** The blocks of the southern wall, with representations of women and children, are not @@ -719,7 +719,7 @@ FHN I-IV Eide, Tormod, Tomas Hägg, Richard Holton Pierce, and László Török (eds). *Fontes Historiae Nubiorum: Textual Sources for the History of the Middle Nile Region between the Eighth Century BC and the Sixth Century -AD, vols. I-- IV*. Bergen: University of Bergen, 1994-2000. +AD, vols. I-IV*. Bergen: University of Bergen, 1994-2000. # Bibliography @@ -730,7 +730,7 @@ Einführungen und Quellentexte zur Ägyptologie 8. Berlin: LIT Verlag, Burstein, Stanley. "The Nubian Slave Trade in Antiquity: A Suggestion." In *Graeco-Africana: Studies in the History of Greek Relations with Egypt and Nubia*. New Rochelle, NY, Athens & Moscow: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1995: pp. -195--205 +195-205 Butler, Judith. *Frames of War. When is Life Grievable?* London and New York: Routledge, 2009. @@ -743,7 +743,7 @@ Richard Nice. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. Bourdieu, Pierre. "Symbolic Violence." In *Violence in War and Peace. An Anthology*, edited by Nancy Scheper-Hughes -and Philippe Bourgois, pp. 339--342. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. +and Philippe Bourgois, pp. 339-42. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Chapman, Suzanne E., and Dows Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*. The @@ -751,12 +751,12 @@ Royal Cemeteries of Kush III. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1952. 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Cornelius @@ -953,28 +953,28 @@ Gallus from Philae." In *Tradition and Transformation: Egypt under the Roman Rule. Proceedings of the International Conference, Hildsheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, 3-6 July 2008*. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East Vol. 41, edited by Katja Lembke, Martina -Minas-Nerpel, and Stefan Pfeiffer, pp. 265--98. Leiden: +Minas-Nerpel, and Stefan Pfeiffer, pp. 265-98. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Nordström, Hans-Åke. "Gender and Social Structure in the Nubian A-Group." In *Combining the Past and the Present. Archaeological Perspectives on Society*, edited by Terje Oestigaard, Nils -Anfinset, and Tore Saetersdal, pp. 127--33. Oxford: +Anfinset, and Tore Saetersdal, pp. 127-33. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 2004. O'Connor, David, and Stephen Quirke. "Introduction: Mapping the Unknown in Ancient Egypt." In *Mysterious Lands*. Encounters with Ancient Egypt, edited by David -O'Connor and Stephen Quirke, pp. 1--22. 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London and New York: Routledge, 2016. Pomerantseva, Natalia A. "The View on Meroitic Kings and Queens as it is Reflected in Their Iconography." In *Studien zum antiken Sudan. Akten der 7. Internationalen Tagung für meroitistische Forschungen vom 14. bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin*. -Meroitica. Schriften zur altsudanesischen Geschichte und Archäologie 15, -edited by Steffen Wenig, pp. 622--32. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999. +Meroitica 15, +edited by Steffen Wenig, pp. 622-32. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999. Pope, Jeremy. *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 69. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2014. @@ -1001,11 +1001,11 @@ and II*. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019. Redford, Donald. "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya." *Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies* 24 -(1993): pp. 188--91. +(1993): pp. 188-91. Revez, Jean. "Une stèle inédite de la Troisième Période Intermédiaire à Karnak: une guerre civile en Thébaïde?" *Cahiers de Karnak* 11 (2003): -pp. 535--69. +pp. 535-69. Rilly, Claude. "New Advances in the Understanding of Royal Meroitic Inscriptions." In *11th International Conference for Meroitic @@ -1014,7 +1014,7 @@ http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/meroe2008/abstracts/Abstract%20Rilly.pdf Rilly, Claude. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." In *Königsstadt Naga. Grabungen in der Wüste des Sudan*, edited by Karla -Kröper, Sylvia Schoske, and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches +Kröper, Sylvia Schoske, and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176-201. München-Berlin: Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, 2011. Rilly, Claude. "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of the @@ -1033,7 +1033,7 @@ Shinnie, Peter L., and Bradley, Rebecca J. "The Murals from the Augustus Temple, Meroe." In *Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan; Essays in Honor of Dows Dunham on the Occasion of His 90th Birthday, June 1, 1980*, edited by William Kelly -Simpson, pp. 167--72. Boston: Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near +Simpson, pp. 167-72. Boston: Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern Art, Museum of Fine Arts, 1981. Sørensen, Marie Louise Stig. *Gender Archaeology*. @@ -1041,7 +1041,7 @@ Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000. Spalinger, Anthony J. "Notes on the Military in Egypt during the XXVth Dynasty." *Journal of the Society for the Study of -Egyptian Antiquities* 11 (1981): pp. 37--58. +Egyptian Antiquities* 11 (1981): pp. 37-58. Spalinger, Anthony J. *The Persistence of Memory in Kush. Pianchy and His Temple*. Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University, @@ -1058,7 +1058,7 @@ Taterka, Filip. "Military Expeditions of King Hatshepsut." In *Current Research in Egyptology 2016. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium. Jagiellonian University, Krakow 2016*, edited by Julia M. Chyla, Joanna Dębowska-Ludwin, Karolina -Rosińska-Balik, and Carl Walsh, pp. 90--106. Oxford: Oxbow +Rosińska-Balik, and Carl Walsh, pp. 90-106. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2017. Török, László. *Meroe City, an Ancient African Capital: @@ -1077,7 +1077,7 @@ Török, László. "Sacred Landscape, Historical Identity and Memory: Aspects of Napatan and Meroitic Urban Architecture." In *Nubian Studies 1998. Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the International Society of Nubian Studies. August 21-26, 1998, Boston, Massachusetts*, -edited by T. Kendall, pp. 14--23. Boston: Department of African-American Studies +edited by T. Kendall, pp. 14-23. Boston: Department of African-American Studies Northeastern University, 2004. Török, László. *Between the Two Worlds: The Frontier @@ -1086,11 +1086,11 @@ Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC-500 AD*. Probleme der Williamson, Jacquelyn. "Alone before the God: Gender, Status, and Nefertiti's Image." *Journal of the American Research Center -in Egypt* 51 (2015): pp. 179--92. +in Egypt* 51 (2015): pp. 179-92. Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard, and Pamela J. Rose. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, -Egypt." *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64--78. +Egypt." *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64-78. Wenig, Steffen (ed.). *Africa in Antiquity. The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan. I. The Essays. II. The Catalogue*. New @@ -1099,26 +1099,26 @@ York: Brooklyn Museum, 1978. Wöß, Florian. "The Representations of Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art." In *The Kushite World. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Meroitic Studies, Vienna, 1-4 September -2008*. Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna: +2008*. Beiträge zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585-600. Vienna: Verein der Förderer der Sudanforschung, 2015. Zach, Michael H. "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM -1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." *Sudan and Nubia* 21 (2007): pp. 148--50. +1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." *Sudan and Nubia* 21 (2007): pp. 148-50. Žižek, Slavoj. *Violence. Six Sideways Reflections*. New York: Picador, 2008. [^1]: For criticism of androcentrism, see Conkey & - Spector, "Archaeology and the Study of Gender," pp. 5--14; + Spector, "Archaeology and the Study of Gender," pp. 5-14; for criticism of heteronormative interpretations of the past, see Dowson, "Why Queer Archaeology? An Introduction," - pp. 161--165; for giving voices to ancient women and recognizing + pp. 161-65; for giving voices to ancient women and recognizing different genders behind the archaeological record, see Gilchrist, *Gender and Archaeology*; Sørensen, *Gender Archaeology*; - Díaz-Andreu, "Gender identity," pp. 1--42; for viewing + Díaz-Andreu, "Gender identity," pp. 1-42; for viewing gender as a system, see Conkey & Spector, "Archaeology - and the Study of Gender," pp. 4--16; for gender as a result of + and the Study of Gender," pp. 4-16; for gender as a result of performative practice, see Perry & Joyce, "Providing a Past for Bodies that Matter: Judith Butler\'s Impact on the Archaeology of Gender." The literature in gender archaeology is vast @@ -1131,16 +1131,16 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^3]: Lohwasser, *Die königlichen Frauen*; Lohwasser, "Queenship in Kush: Status, Role and - Ideology of Royal Women," pp. 61--76; Lohwasser. "The Role - and Status of Royal Women in Kush," pp. 61--72. + Ideology of Royal Women," pp. 61-76; Lohwasser. "The Role + and Status of Royal Women in Kush," pp. 61-72. [^4]: Lohwasser, "Gibt es mehr als zwei Geschlechter? Zum - Verhältnis von Gender und Alter," pp. 33--41. + Verhältnis von Gender und Alter," pp. 33-41. -[^5]: Phillips, "Women in Ancient Nubia," pp. 280--98. The +[^5]: Phillips, "Women in Ancient Nubia," pp. 280-98. The necessity of studying gender, rather than focusing solely on women has also been emphasized recently, Lohwasser and - Philipps, "Women in Ancient Kush," pp. 1015--32. + Philipps, "Women in Ancient Kush," pp. 1015-32. [^6]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of Bronze and Expressions of Masculinity"; Karlsson, "Gender and Kushite State @@ -1157,34 +1157,34 @@ York: Picador, 2008. Thedéen, *To Tender Gender*. [^9]: Jensen and Matić, "Introduction: Why do - we need archaeologies of gender and violence, and why now?," pp. 1--23. + we need archaeologies of gender and violence, and why now?," pp. 1-23. -[^10]: Bourdieu, *Masculine Domination*, pp. 1--2; Bourdieu, - "Symbolic Violence," pp. 339--42; Žižek, *Violence. Six - Sideways Reflections*, pp. 1--2; for the application of these concepts +[^10]: Bourdieu, *Masculine Domination*, pp. 1-2; Bourdieu, + "Symbolic Violence," pp. 339-42; Žižek, *Violence. Six + Sideways Reflections*, pp. 1-2; for the application of these concepts in archaeology and Egyptology, see Jensen and Matić, "Introduction: Why do We Need Archaeologies of - Gender and Violence, and Why Now?," pp. 1--23; Matić, + Gender and Violence, and Why Now?," pp. 1-23; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and Children in NK Battle Scenes," - pp. 245--60; Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, pp. 139--48; + pp. 245-60; Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, pp. 139-48; Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^11]: For example, see Kuhrt, "Women and War," pp. 1--25. +[^11]: For example, see Kuhrt, "Women and War," pp. 1-25. [^12]: Matić, "Die \'\'römische\'\' Feinde in der - meroitischen Kunst," pp. 251--62; Spalinger, *The + meroitischen Kunst," pp. 251-62; Spalinger, *The Persistence of Memory in Kush*; Spalinger, *Leadership - under Fire*, pp. 201--42; Wöß, "The Representations of - Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art," pp. 585--600. + under Fire*, pp. 201-42; Wöß, "The Representations of + Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art," pp. 585-600. [^13]: Matić, "Her Striking but Cold Beauty: Gender and Violence in Depictions of Queen Nefertiti Smiting the Enemies," - pp. 103--21; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and - Children in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245--60; Matić, *Body - and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139--48; Matić, *Violence + pp. 103-21; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and + Children in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245-60; Matić, *Body + and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139-48; Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^14]: Butler, *Frames of War*, pp. 1--10. +[^14]: Butler, *Frames of War*, pp. 1-10. [^15]: Butler, *Frames of War*, p. 26. @@ -1197,9 +1197,9 @@ York: Picador, 2008. Theory and Antiracist Politics." [^19]: Matić, "The Best of the Booty of His Majesty: - Evidence for Foreign Child Labor in New Kingdom Egypt," pp. 53--63; + Evidence for Foreign Child Labor in New Kingdom Egypt," pp. 53-63; Matić, "Begehrte Beute. Fremde Frauen als Raubgut im - Alten Ägypten," pp. 15--8. + Alten Ägypten," pp. 15-8. [^20]: The author is currently working on a comprehensive study of the ancient Egyptian and Nubian lists of spoils of war from the Egyptian @@ -1211,7 +1211,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^22]: Macadam. *The Temples of Kawa I*. *Text*, p. 36; Macadam, *The Temples of Kawa I.* *Plates*, Pls. - 11--12; FHN I, pp. 172--73. + 11-12; FHN I, pp. 172-73. [^23]: Redford, "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya," p. 190. The stela actually does not bear the name of Taharqa and Jean Revez @@ -1227,7 +1227,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^26]: For appointing prisoners of war to temples and temple workshops in New Kingdom Egypt, see Matić, "The Best of the Booty of His Majesty: Evidence for Foreign Child Labor in New - Kingdom Egypt," pp. 53--63. + Kingdom Egypt," pp. 53-63. [^27]: FHN II, p. 447. @@ -1245,7 +1245,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^33]: FHN II, p. 489. -[^34]: FHN II; pp. 489--90. +[^34]: FHN II, pp. 489-90. [^35]: FHN II, p. 490. @@ -1255,7 +1255,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. Memory," p. 161; For the same practice in ancient Egypt, at least until the New Kingdom, see Matić, "The Best of the Booty of His Majesty: Evidence for Foreign Child Labor in New Kingdom Egypt," - pp. 53--63. + pp. 53-63. [^38]: FHN II, pp. 722-3; The connection to the conflict with Rome has been challenged since, Zach, "A Remark on the @@ -1272,7 +1272,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^41]: Török, *Meroe City*, p. 104. [^42]: Török, *The Kingdom of Kush*, p. 401; - Török, *The Image of the Ordered World*, pp. 219--20. + Török, *The Image of the Ordered World*, pp. 219-20. [^43]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, p. 262. @@ -1294,10 +1294,10 @@ York: Picador, 2008. on the Military in Egypt during the XXVth Dynasty," p. 48, Figs. 3 and 4. -[^46]: Wenig, *Africa in Antiquity*, pp. 59--60. +[^46]: Wenig, *Africa in Antiquity*, pp. 59-60. [^47]: Hofmann, "Notizen zu den Kampfszenen am sogenannten - Sonnentempel von Meroe," pp. 519--21. + Sonnentempel von Meroe," pp. 519-21. [^48]: Chapman and Dunham, *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 17. @@ -1316,15 +1316,15 @@ York: Picador, 2008. VIII*, p. 139. [^53]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, - pp. 189--90. + pp. 189-90. [^54]: Minas-Nerpel and Pfeiffer, "Establishing Roman Rule in Egypt: The Trilingual Stela of C. - Cornelius Gallus from Philae," pp. 285--8. + Cornelius Gallus from Philae," pp. 285-8. [^55]: Kormysheva, "Political Relations between the Roman Empire," p. 306; Török, *Between the Two Worlds*, - pp. 434--6. + pp. 434-6. [^56]: Jameson, "Chronology of the Campaigns of Aelius Gallus and C. Petronius," p. 77; Török, *Between the Two @@ -1340,7 +1340,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^60]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, p. 139. [^61]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, - pp. 140--1, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42; p. 257, Abb. 95. + pp. 140-1, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42; p. 257, Abb. 95. [^62]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, p. 140, Abb. 38; p. 257, Abb. 95. @@ -1352,7 +1352,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^65]: For example, in tribute scenes from the tombs of Useramun-TT 131, Rekhmire-TT 100, Horemhab-TT 78 but also the Beit el-Wali temple of Ramesses II, Matić, "Children on the Move: *ms.w wr.w* - in the New Kingdom Procession Scenes." pp. 378--9, Fig. 12. + in the New Kingdom Procession Scenes." pp. 378-9, Fig. 12. [^66]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, p. 189. @@ -1360,7 +1360,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. VIII*, p. 139. [^68]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, - pp. 138--9, Abb. 37b. + pp. 138-9, Abb. 37b. [^69]: Török, *The Image of the Ordered World,* p. 220; Breyer, *Einführung in die Meroitistik*, p. 67. @@ -1376,13 +1376,13 @@ York: Picador, 2008. Kunst," p. 258. [^73]: Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and Children - in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245--60; Matić, *Body and - Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139--48. + in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245-60; Matić, *Body and + Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139-48. [^74]: Strathern, *Before and After Gender*, p. 21. [^75]: Parkinson, "Homosexual' Desire and Middle Kingdom Literature"; - Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, pp. 139--48; + Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, pp. 139-48; Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. [^76]: Grimal, *La Stèle Triomphale,* p. 177; FHN I, p. 111. @@ -1427,7 +1427,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. in Ancient Kush," p. 1021. [^94]: McCoskey, "Gender at the Crossroads of Empire". - pp. 61--8. + pp. 61-8. [^95]: Wilkins, Barnard, and Rose, "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, Egypt," @@ -1443,16 +1443,16 @@ York: Picador, 2008. images, and that the status of queens smiting enemies is lower than the status of the king smiting male enemies, Matić, "Her Striking but Cold Beauty: Gender and Violence in Depictions of - Queen Nefertiti Smiting the Enemies," pp. 103--21. + Queen Nefertiti Smiting the Enemies," pp. 103-21. [^98]: Matić, "Her Striking but Cold Beauty: Gender and Violence in Depictions of Queen Nefertiti Smiting the Enemies," - pp. 103--21; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and - Children in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245--60; Matić, *Body - and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139--48. + pp. 103-21; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and + Children in NK Battle Scenes," pp. 245-60; Matić, *Body + and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, pp. 139-48. [^99]: Williamson, "Alone before the God: Gender, Status, - and Nefertiti's Image," pp. 179--92. + and Nefertiti's Image," pp. 179-92. [^100]: Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. @@ -1477,7 +1477,7 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^108]: Matić, "Her Striking but Cold Beauty: Gender and Violence in Depictions of Queen Nefertiti Smiting the Enemies," - pp. 116--7. + pp. 116-7. [^109]: For exceptionality and the possible divinization of Amanirenas (1st century CE), see Zach, "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' @@ -1497,4 +1497,4 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^113]: For the military activities of Ahhotep and Hatshepsut see, Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*; Taterka, "Military expeditions of King Hatshepsut," - pp. 90--106. + pp. 90-106.