From 8b0df2236b32240a0881fda72550f2116143231a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: "Vincent W.J. van Gerven Oei" Date: Tue, 22 Nov 2022 18:41:41 +0100 Subject: [PATCH] added Honegger article --- content/article/honegger.md | 705 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ content/author/matthieuhonegger.md | 7 + content/issue/dotawo8.md | 2 +- 3 files changed, 713 insertions(+), 1 deletion(-) create mode 100644 content/article/honegger.md create mode 100644 content/author/matthieuhonegger.md diff --git a/content/article/honegger.md b/content/article/honegger.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e18b05 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/article/honegger.md @@ -0,0 +1,705 @@ +--- +title: "The Archers of Kerma: Warrior Image and Birth of a State" +authors: ["matthieuhonegger.md"] +abstract: A research programme conducted by the Swiss archaeological mission in +the oldest sectors of the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma has uncovered +several dozen archers\' tombs. The appearance of these armed warriors +dating from ca. 2300 BC onwards can be put in parallel with the +resumption of commercial activities between Egypt and Nubia, illustrated +by the Harkhuf expeditions. The archers and their warrior attributes +probably participate in the emergence of kingship ca. 2000 BC, which +takes control of the commercial axis along the Nile and is illustrated +by the accumulation of wealth and the development of servitude. This +article proposes to describe these Kerma archers, and then to look at +the evolution of funerary rites that show in their own way how a social +hierarchy emerges that will lead to the birth of a state, in this +instance the kingdom of Kerma. +keywords: [] +--- + +# Introduction + +It is known that at the time of the Egyptian Kingdom, Nubia represented +a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1^st^ to the +5^th^ cataract. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are +depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae or engraved +rocks, on bas-reliefs or painted tomb walls. As early as the Old +Kingdom, they were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and +probably formed troops, as shown in the model representing them in the +tomb of Prince Mesheti (11^th^ Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is +itself designated from the beginning of the 3^rd^ millennium by a +hieroglyph in the shape of a bow, *Ta-Sety*, which means the land of the +bow. Despite this evidence of the importance of these warriors and their +weapons, archaeological finds of Nubian archers\' tombs contemporary +with the Egyptian Kingdom are anecdotal. Only a few tombs from the Kerma +period (2550-1480 BC) have been reported by Charles Bonnet in his +excavation reports on the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma.[^1] His most +important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of an naturally +mummified archer (Fig. 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase +(2300-2150 BC), this grave contained the body of a young man, whose head +had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow +remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows +was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers. + +The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the +abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as for the numerous +traumas present on its skeletonsy.[^5] These observations led to the +view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of +violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final +phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known +thanks to the work of George A. Reisner, undertaken at the beginning of +the 20^th^ century.[^6] Since then, excavations were undertaken between +1979 and 1999 by Charles Bonnet, who investigated 27 sectors spread over +its entire surface (Fig. 2), and between 2008 and 2018, we have +undertaken systematic excavations in sectors of the early stages of the +cemetery (2550-1950 BC), that correspond to the formation of the Kingdom +of Kerma.[^7] They provide previously unpublished information on the +appearance of the first warriors in the form of the famous Nubian +archers, on cases of violence, as well as on the phenomena of servitude, +wealth, and funerary ostentation that was co-eval with the birth of the +kingdom and its domination over a large part of Upper Nubia. + +**The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma and its new excavation** + +As part of our programme on the evolution of society in Early Kerma, we +have reinvestigated and completed the excavations of Sectors 23, 27, and +8, and have opened Sectors 28, 29, 30, and 31 (Fig. 3). The tombs have +been systematically excavated, taking into account information on the +surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post +holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of +the pits. Knowing that more than 99% of the graves dating from this +period of the necropolis\'s utilisation were subsequently looted, the +infill of the pits is often the only way to get an idea of the contents +of the tomb and of the ceramics placed on the surface beside the mound. + +The work undertaken in recent years has made it possible to build a +precise chronology for the early phases of the cemetery, from the +beginning of Early Kerma to the beginning of Middle Kerma. The study and +spatial distribution of the 409 tombs excavated since 2008 allows us to +follow in detail each stage from the evolution of funeral rites. An +absolute chronology was constructed using 23 14C dates that were +confronted with the typology of Kerma pottery and Egyptian imports, and +this makes it possible to distinguish five successive phases between +2550 and 1950 BC: *Kerma ancien 0, I, II, III,* and *Kerma moyen I* +(Fig. 3).[^8] We thus have a relatively precise chronological framework +which highlights five distinct phases of relatively short duration from +the beginning of Early Kerma to the Middle Kerma. Regarding the spatial +analysis, the first observable tendency during this evolution appears to +be the progressive increase in the size of the graves' pits. These are +small and rectangular during *Kerma ancien 0* (average surface of 0.9 +m^2^), becoming oval and only marginally larger during *Kerma ancien I* +(average surface of 1.2 m^2^). It is only from *Kerma ancien II* that +they mostly become larger and more circular (average surface of 4.2 +m^2^), with this tendency continuing in *Kerma ancien III*, with the +larger pits attaining a diameter exceeding 4 metres, occasionally more +quadrangular than circular (average surface of 5 m^2^). Then, in *Kerma +moyen I* appeared the first royal graves with a diameter ranging between +7 to 10 metres. + +In the oldest sectors (*Kerma ancien 0* and *I*), the tombs are all of +equal size and their contents do not give the image of strong social +distinction. As is the rule in the Kerma period, the bodies are laid on +their right side, head towards the east. The objects found in the tombs +are not very abundant, metal (gold, copper alloy) is very rare. As +regards pottery, there is a marked presence of C-Group pots, which will +become more discrete over time.[^9] + +The *Kerma ancien II* phase shows spectacular changes in the funerary +rites, compared to the earlier phases in the cemetery. The tombs are +generally larger and contain more objects. Metal is more regularly +attested, notably in the form of bronze mirrors and gold necklaces or +pendants. Animal sacrifices make their appearance (dogs, caprines) as +well as bucrania in front of some tumuli. Tombs with multiple burials +are also more frequent, indicating the development of accompanying or +sacrificed people, which will increase significantly in the succeeding +periods. The distinction between male and female graves becomes +systematic and stereotyped (Fig. 4). If the buried women are +systematically endowed with a stick, an ornament, and sometimes +particular objects or tools such as potter\'s tools, the male tombs are +systematically endowed with a bow.[^10] + +During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in +the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed +that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). The +four youngest individuals with a bow are less than 4 years old, and the +one in Figure 5 has a bow that is too large for his size. This +observation and their age -- less than two years for two of them -- +shows that these bows are not necessarily placed in tombs to express the +activity of the deceased, but also have a symbolic connotation related +to male status. The richest graves sometimes distinguish themselves in a +more spectacular manner. One of them had 50 aligned bucrania to the +south and 38 decorated pots on the surface. It is at the beginning of +Middle Kerma (*Kerma moyen I*) that the first royal graves appeared, +like that recently discovered in Sector 31, whose diameter exceeds 10 +metres, and which has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the +tumulus.[^11] + +Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and, for this +period, it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in +diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society +which would culminate at the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. The central +inhumations in the largest tumuli are supposed to be the graves of the +rulers, the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to +free men and women.[^12] In certain instances, a mud-brick chapel was +erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13] + +During Classic Kerma, the diameter of the largest graves is between 30 +and 90 meters in diameter. The three most famous ones were built to a +uniform size with tumuli approximately 90 meters in diameter (KIII, IV, +X). Composed of a complex internal structure of mud-brick walls with a +corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, they are assumed to +belong to the most powerful rulers of Kerma[^14] (Kendall 1997). The +grave goods found in these burials and in some subsidiary ones were +particularly elaborate and the proportion of Egyptian imports high.[^15] +Two monumental funerary temples (KI, KXI) were erected north-west of the +tumuli KIII and KX. The Eastern Cemetery was abandoned as a location for +royal burials during the conquest of Kush by the Egyptians of the 18th +Dynasty, about 1500 BC. A last royal grave was erected 4 km to the west, +south of the ancient town of Kerma, and dates about 1480 BC.[^16] + +# The archers' graves + +From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Fig. +3), all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped +with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too +looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as +the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is +attested, the smallest clue being the presence of the string made of +twisted sinews, probably from sheep or goats (Fig. 7). In view of the +number of graves excavated, we can therefore suppose that the presence +of men or boys with weapons is systematic for the earlier phases. +However, it is not possible to conclude definitively that the presence +of male archers was systematic for all phases of the Eastern Cemetery +without looking at the previous excavations of Reisner and Bonnet. + +The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was +excavated in 1915 by Reisner, then in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp +(135 graves). The documentation[^18] published after the death of +Reisner, is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery +corresponding to Classic Kerma and excavated in 1913-1914.[^19] The +tombs excavated by Kemp have not been spatially located. Nevertheless, +we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers *Kerma +ancien III* and *Kerma moyen I* phases. The documentation identifies the +grave of a woman with a staff, but there is no evidence of bows. In view +of the discreet nature of the evidence for archery, we believe that it +has simply not been identified. It must be said that the tombs were +systematically excavated by Egyptians from the village of Kouft, +assisted by Nubians. It is therefore very likely that they simply did +not observe these fleeting remains. In the "Cemetery M" (Middle Kerma, +see fig. 3) which dates of Middle Kerma, the documentation, published +with that of the "Cemetery N" is not better than this latter. No archer +or bow was identified. It is only in Classic Kerma that this practice +seems to disappear, according to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is +of much better quality than that published by Dunham.[^21] It must be +said that this part of the cemetery is different from that of Early and +Middle Kerma. Our demographic estimate for the Eastern Cemetery +concludes that there were at least 36,000 individuals buried, but the +part attributed to Classic Kerma yields only 700. Simulations of burial +recruitment show that this part of the cemetery is the most selective +and contains only a small section of the ruling class, in contrast to +earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by +daggers, which led Hafsaas[^22] to conclude that there was a warrior +elite displaying this type of weapon, as was the case in Europe in the +Late Bronze and Iron Ages. + +In the excavations of Bonnet, which involved just over 250 tombs, a few +archers were identified. Again, the excavations were carried out almost +systematically by Nubian excavators who were not trained to find small +remains as bow stings. Nevertheless, Bonnet reports the presence of some +archers in Early Kerma sectors, as well as in Middle Kerma sectors. The +famous mummy of an archer (Fig. 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma +ancien II*) and five other graves of archers were excavated in Sector 23 +(Kerma (*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers +were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as +well as another in sector 20 (*Kerma moyen IV*).[^25] Finally, we had +the opportunity to excavate a grave in sector 24 (*Kerma moyen V*) which +contained 36 lunates corresponding to arrowheads.[^26] From all these +observations, we can assume that the tradition of male burials as +archers started in the *Kerma ancien II* phase and must have continued +until the end of Middle Kerma.[^27] + +Let us return to the archers\' graves of the oldest sectors.[^28] Their +equipment consists of: + +\- One or two bows, single or double-curved (Fig. 8). It seems to us +that not too much should be made of this distinction, because the double +curvature can be achieved by deformation. It does not necessarily +suggest a composite bow, attested in Egypt later and supposedly +introduced by the Hyksos.[^29] The bow with a double curvature does not +necessarily imply that it is composite, which is a far more +sophisticated manufacturing technique, since it is not attested in +Africa at this time. On the other hand, ethnographic material describes +simple techniques to obtain a strong incurvation of the extremities of +the bow, which consist in bending the wood by means of ligaments and +forms.[^30] It is probably the use of similar techniques which explain +the well-attested differences in the Nubian bows. The most common +dimension is 120 cm, but two larger bows, about 150 cm long, have been +found. In a child's tomb, a small model, about 90 cm long, was +discovered. The remains of bow-strings have often been found in situ +alongside the bow. In some instances, the extent of the bow's curvature +leads one to believe that it was strung when placed in the tomb. The bow +is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is +occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity +(Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used +to manufacture the bows, since these had been too severely damaged by +termites. + +\- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, are similar +to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6^th^ to 12^th^ +Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The +arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint +(Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of +fitting defined by Clark et al.,[^32] with one placed at the tip of the +arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been +inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed +directly in the archer\'s left hand. + +\- A goat-skin leather quiver. Its presence in the tombs is not +systematic, but we have been able to identify seven more or less +complete ones. They are sewn, some wide and rather short, while others +are slenderer, like the example in Figure 11. + +\- A leather archer\'s wrist-guard of a specific model that seems to be +typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few +cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are +always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two +concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known in +Egypt in the mass grave of soldiers found at Deir el-Bahari of the 12th +Dynasty.[^33] This type of wrist-guard is unusual in Egypt and some +authors considered it to have come from the north, but it probably +belongs to Nubian archers originally attached to the Kerma culture.[^34] + +These observations will be the subject of more detailed descriptions in +the future, especially the numerous leather objects, which are the +subject of a recently started PhD thesis.[^35] Of all the tombs +excavated, only two adult tombs were almost (Fig. 1) or completely +intact (Fig. 13). Enriched by the observations made on the other male +tombs, it is possible to reconstruct the appearance of these archers, +who resemble quite closely the representations made by the Egyptians, +notably those on the temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali, which describe the +expedition of Rameses II in Nubia (Fig. 14). Although later than the +tombs where we made our observations, the white earrings of the men +depicted in these frescoes are the same as those that first appear in +the *Kerma ancien II* phase and continue thereafter. In fact, these +earrings obtained from a Nile shell were found only in male tombs (Fig. +15). Similarly, the men of Kerma wear a sheep-skin loincloth that still +has its wool, which can be dark brown, beige, or quite frequently +bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). This +bicoloured fur, which bears witness to a selection process resulting +from advanced domestication,[^36] could be a form of imitation of the +coat of leopards, such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we +never found a leopard-skin loincloth during our excavations in the +Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were +naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from +Wadi Sabu at the 3^rd^ cataract (Fig. 17), where a series of six archers +wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very +close to that observed at Kerma;[^37] among this group, only one archer +is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not +have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the +headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband +in the tomb of a mummified archer (Fig. 1) that could have served to +attach a feather.[^38] + +# Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state + +At Kerma, men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their +archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards, and continues for +several centuries, probably until the end of the Middle Kerma about 1750 +BC. Clearly, there is a symbolic dimension to this display, underscored +by the fact that even children as young as 1.5 years old are equipped +with bows. Moreover, researchers have repeatedly pointed out that there +are numerous instances of evidence for violence in the Classic Kerma +part of the cemetery,[^39] and the anthropologist working on the +skeletons of Early Kerma has also noted the abundance of such evidence, +especially on young men.[^40] It must therefore be admitted that the +presence of archers cannot only be symbolic and that it also reflects +the status of these warriors, who were perhaps trained in the handling +of the bow from a very young age. As reported by the Egyptians, this +weapon was of major importance in Nubia and at the time of Early Kerma, +the hundreds of excavated tombs did not reveal many other kinds of +weapons. Mace heads are exceptional in this period, and we found only +one in 409 excavated tombs. The spears must have been made of wood or +composite material. We found a long point manufactured from a mammal +long bone that could have been the apex of a spear. As for copper alloy +daggers, they only appear at the end of Early Kerma and become more +numerous during Middle Kerma, becoming more elongated, to finally be +replaced by the daggers of Classic Kerma. We can also point out the +wooden throwing sticks or the several bronze spearheads, but the aim is +not to draw up a complete inventory of weapons, an exercise that has +already been done for weapons in this necropolis.[^41] + +If we have already underlined that it is from the *Kerma ancien II* +phase (2300-2150 BC) that the distinctions between the tombs begin to be +marked, this tendency will be reinforced thereafter to culminate with +the appearance of the first royal tombs of the *Kerma moyen I* phase +(2050-1950 BC). These tombs, unfortunately looted, are notable for their +size (7 to 10 m in diameter for the pit, 12 to 15 m for the tumulus), +for the hundreds or even thousands of bucrania deposited to the south of +the tumulus, but also for the quantity of fine ceramics laid out inside +the pit and around the tumulus. Other criteria, such as the animal and +human sacrifices -- which some prefer to call accompanying deaths -- +also underline the status of the individuals, insofar as their number is +proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of +Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of the exchanges (Fig. +18). + +During the first phase of Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are +already significant, and it is possible that the presence of several +C-Group features is evidence of important contacts between Upper and +Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase, exchanges decline, a sign of a +certain loss of Egyptian control over Lower Nubia, as has already been +pointed out.[^43] It is during the *Kerma ancien II* phase (2300-2150 +BC) that imports increase again. It is also from this time onwards that +the archers\' tombs appear, that the distinctions between the tombs +start to be significant, and that the wealth becomes more important, +notably through the presence of Egyptian copper alloy mirrors which will +attract the interest of the looters. + +It is precisely during this phase that Egyptian sources mention the +famous expeditions of Harkhuf,[^44] a high dignitary of Aswan. His tomb, +covered with inscriptions, relates the story of his three journeys to +Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II, around 2250 +BC. These were obviously expeditions aimed at reopening trade routes by +making contact and trading with the Nubian populations located south of +the 2^nd^ cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations +or tribes populate Nubia and do not necessarily maintain peaceful +relations between them[^46]. These groups are already hierarchical with +dominant personalities capable of gathering armed men in quantity, +goods, and donkeys by the dozen, to accompany Harkhuf and his escort. It +is likely that Kerma then developed a coercive policy to ensure the +control of the lucrative trade with the Egyptians, in an atmosphere of +conflicts between tribes or lineages. The valorisation of the role of +warriors in funeral rites could be a consequence of this. + +From this point onwards, the indications of a more marked social +stratification increase rapidly with an increase in imports, in the +number of human sacrifices, in the number of bucrania in front of the +largest tombs, as well as in the number of red fine ware with black +rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18). One can imagine a +competition between dominant lineages, as we have suggested in an +analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their +decorations[^47]. This competition will lead to the emergence of a +dominant lineage that will concentrate the wealth and show it in the +funeral rites, as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear +around 2000 BC (Fig. 19). It is from this period onwards that the +necropolis will undergo a spectacular development, much more important +demographically than natural population growth could allow. Kerma must +therefore have been the centre of the kingdom from this period onwards +and attracted populations from its kingdom to settle in the region. + +# Bibliography + +[Bonnet]{.smallcaps}, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes +de 1980-1981 et 1981-1982", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles +archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan), *Genava, n.s.,* 30 (1982): pp. 1-25. + +[Bonnet]{.smallcaps}, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes +de 1982-1983 et 1983-1984", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles +archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan), *Genava, n.s.,* 32 (1984): pp. 5-42. + +[Bonnet]{.smallcaps}, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes +de 1984-1985 et 1985-1986", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. Les fouilles +archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan), *Genava, n.s.,* 34 (1986): pp. 5-20. + +[Bonnet]{.smallcaps}, Charles. "Rapport préliminaire sur les campagnes +de 1993-1994 et 1994-1995", in: Bonnet, C. & collab. 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"Nubia and Egypt: Interaction, +acculturation, and secondary state formation from the third to first +millennium BC", In: Cusick, James G. (ed.). *Studies in Culture Contact: +Interaction, Culture Change, and Archaeology*. Southern Illinois +University Press (1995): pp. 256-287. + +[Testart]{.smallcaps}, Alain. *Éléments de classification des sociétés*. +Errance. Paris, 2005. + +[Török]{.smallcaps}, László. *Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region +between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - 500 AD*. Leiden, 2009. + +[Vogel]{.smallcaps}, Carola. "Fallen Heroes?: Winlock\'s \'Slain +Soldiers\' Reconsidered", *The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology*, 89 +(2003): pp. 239-245. + +[Walsh]{.smallcaps}, Carl. "Techniques for Egyptian Eyes: Diplomacy and +the Transmission of Cosmetic Practices between Egypt and Kerma", Journal +of Egyptian History (2021): pp. 295-332. + +[Winlock]{.smallcaps}, Herbert E. *The Slain Soldiers of +Neb-hepet-Re\'-Mentu-entu-Hotpe*. Publications of the Metropolitan +Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition, 16. New York, 1945. + +[^1]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan) ", 1982, + pp. 15-19 ; 1984, p. 17 ; 1986, p. 12 ; 1995, p. 44. + +[^2]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan) ", 1982, + pp. 15-19. + +[^3]: Kerma is the name of the village next to the city of Kerma and its + eastern cemetery. It gave its name to the culture of Kerma, defined + by its ceramics and its funeral rites (see Gratien, *Les cultures + Kerma. Essai de classification*). This culture is also referred to + as the Kingdom of Kerma. In the context of anthropological theories + on the evolution of societies, a kingdom can be equated with a state + (see Testart, *éléments de classification des sociétés*). It can + also be considered as a secondary state, insofar as it seems to + emerge as a result of its contacts with the Egyptian state, which + originated more than five centuries before (Smith, "Nubia and Egypt: + Interaction, acculturation, and secondary state formation from the + third to first millennium BC"). + +[^4]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity: + the emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan", pp. 79-91; + Manzo, "Weapons, ideology and identity at Kerma (Upper Nubia, + 2500-1500 BC)", pp. 3-29. + +[^5]: Judd, "Ancient Injury Recidivism: An Example from the Kerma Period + of Ancient Nubia", pp. 89-102. + +[^6]: Reisner, *Excavations at Kerma. Harvard African Studies 5-6*. + +[^7]: This project was supported by the Swiss National Fund (SNF + 100011_163021/1), the State Secretariat for Education, Research and + Innovation of the Swiss Confederation, the Kerma Foundation, and the + University of Neuchâtel (Switzerland). We also thank Dr Abdelrahman + Ali, director of the National Corporation of Antiquities and Museums + of Sudan (NCAM) for his support. + +[^8]: Honegger, "La plus ancienne tombe royale de Kerma en Nubie", pp. + 189-194; Honegger, "New Data on the Origins of Kerma", pp. 21-24. + +[^9]: Honegger, "New Data on the Origins of Kerma", pp. 25-28. + +[^10]: Bonnet and Honegger, "The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma", pp. + 216-218. + +[^11]: Honegger "La plus ancienne tombe royale de Kerma en Nubie", pp. + 194-197. See also the end of this paper and figure 15. + +[^12]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity: + the emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan", pp. 79-91. + +[^13]: Mud brick chapels were built in connection with the most + important and largest graves, Bonnet, *Edifices et rites funéraires + à Kerma*. + +[^14]: Kendall, *Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush 2500-1500 B.C. The + Archaeological Discovery of an Ancient Nubian Empire*. + +[^15]: See Minor, The Use of Egyptian and Egyptianizing Material Culture + in Nubian Burials of the Classic Kerma Period and Walsh, "Techniques + for Egyptian Eyes: Diplomacy and the Transmission of Cosmetic + Practices between Egypt and Kerma". + +[^16]: Bonnet and Honegger, "The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma", pp. + 223-224. + +[^17]: Sector 23 contained 122 individuals of which 90 were discovered + by our team. Of these 90 individuals, 49 were mature (25 female and + 20 male), 37 immature and 4 undetermined. The total number of + archers\' graves was 24, of which 15 were adult males, 3 were + children under 10 years of age, 5 were between 10 and 19 years of + age, and one grave did not yield enough human remains to determine + age and sex. In the Sector 29 (*Kerma ancien III)*, 18 archers were + identified on a total of 72 individuals. In the Sector 31 (*Kerma + moyen I*), 8 archers were identified on a total of 20 individuals. + The bio-anthropological data are provided by Agathe Chen, in charge + of the study of the skeletons of the Eastern Cemetery. + +[^18]: Dunham, *Excavations at Kerma. Part VI.* + +[^19]: Reisner, *Excavations at Kerma.* + +[^20]: Reisner, *Excavations at Kerma.* + +[^21]: Dunham, *Excavations at Kerma. Part VI.* + +[^22]: Hafsaas-Tsakos "Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity: + the emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan", pp. 79-91. + +[^23]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan) ", 1982, + p. 15-19. + +[^24]: They were excavated in January 1996 but remain unpublished. + +[^25]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan) ", 1986, + p. 12 ; 1995, p. 44. + +[^26]: Honegger, "Lunate microliths in the Holocene industries of Nubia: + Multifunctional tools, sickle blades or weapon elements?", pp. + 169-171. + +[^27]: The number of archers for Middle Kerma may seem low. However, it + should be remembered that these tombs are often much more plundered + than those of Early Kerma, and that we did not have the opportunity + to excavate tombs later than Kerma moyen I during our programme + conducted between 1998 and 2008. + +[^28]: Honegger and Fallet, "Archers Tombs of the Kerma ancien", pp. + 16-30. + +[^29]: Le Quellec "Arcs et archers sahariens: les représentations + d'archers dans l'art rupestre du Sahara central", p. 62 ; Le Quellec + "Arcs et bracelets d'archers au Sahara et en Égypte, avec une + nouvelle proposition de lecture des 'nasses' sahariennes", pp. + 208-211. + +[^30]: Ibid. + +[^31]: Honegger, "Lunate microliths in the Holocene industries of Nubia: + Multifunctional tools, sickle blades or weapon elements?", pp. + 169-171. + +[^32]: Clark *et al*. "Interpretations of prehistoric technology from + ancient Egyptian and other sources, part 1 : ancient Egyptian bows + and arrows and their relevance for prehistory", fig. 9, p. 362. + +[^33]: The significance of this find of 59 soldiers is still debated and + authors have sought to link it to one of the many conflicts during + the 12th Dynasty, Winlock, *Slain Soldiers.* For a discussion on the + interpretations of this find, see Vogel "Fallen Heroes?: Winlock\'s + \'Slain Soldiers\' Reconsidered". + +[^34]: Müller describes 5 wrist-guards, all made of leather, similar in + shape to those of Kerma. He also presents another similar example + from Gebelin. *Der \'Armreif\' des Konigs Ahmose und der + Handgelenkschutz des Bogenschützen im alten Ägypten und + Vorderasien*, pp. 16-17 and pl. V. + +[^35]: Théophile Burnat, "Manufacture et usages du cuir dans le royaume + de Kerma (Soudan, IIIe et IIe millénaires av. n. è.) ", Université + de Neuchâtel. + +[^36]: Louis Chaix, pers. comm. + +[^37]: Honegger and Fallet, "Archers Tombs of the Kerma ancien", p. 20. + +[^38]: Bonnet, "Les fouilles archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan) ", 1982, + p. 15. + +[^39]: Cf. Judd, "Ancient Injury Recidivism: An Example from the Kerma + Period of Ancient Nubia", pp. 89--102. + +[^40]: Agathe Chen, pers. comm. + +[^41]: Manzo, "Weapons, ideology and identity at Kerma (Upper Nubia, + 2500-1500 BC)", pp. 3-29. + +[^42]: Honegger, "The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma and its first Royal + Grave", pp. 6-19; Honegger, "La plus ancienne tombe royale de Kerma + en Nubie", pp. 185-198. + +[^43]: Török, *Between Two Worlds*, pp. 53-73. + +[^44]: There is still some debate about the country of destination of + these expeditions, called *Iam* by the Egyptians. Kerma is one of + these possibilities, and one of the only ones that provides early + evidence of contact with the Egyptians in Upper Nubia. Other + scholars have proposed the Western Nubian Desert or a region further + south, towards Kordofan and Darfur. For a summary and discussion of + these different hypotheses, see Obsomer, "Les expéditions d'Herkhouf + (VIe dynastie) et la localisation de Iam", pp. 39-52. + +[^45]: Lacovara, "The Stone Vase Deposit at Kerma", pp. 118-128. + +[^46]: Török, *Between Two Worlds*, pp. 69-70. + +[^47]: Honegger, "Style and identity symbols: an attempt to define the + social meaning of the Kerma funerary fineware and its decorations", + forthcoming. diff --git a/content/author/matthieuhonegger.md b/content/author/matthieuhonegger.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c9af7e --- /dev/null +++ b/content/author/matthieuhonegger.md @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +--- +title: Matthieu Honegger +--- + +# Biography + +Bio. diff --git a/content/issue/dotawo8.md b/content/issue/dotawo8.md index f8b6071..9bf663b 100644 --- a/content/issue/dotawo8.md +++ b/content/issue/dotawo8.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ --- title: "Dotawo 8: War in the Sudan" editors: ["henriettehafsaas.md"] -has_articles: ["matic.md", "tsakos.md"] +has_articles: ["matic.md", "tsakos.md", "honegger.md"] --- # Preface by the Editor