From 6c5569be89ee39a2a69d8444e3b54557abe0c754 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Alexandros Tsakos Date: Mon, 5 Dec 2022 17:28:50 +0100 Subject: [PATCH] matic ready --- content/article/urosmatic.md | 517 +++++++++++++++++------------------ 1 file changed, 246 insertions(+), 271 deletions(-) diff --git a/content/article/urosmatic.md b/content/article/urosmatic.md index eeda476..20ea78b 100644 --- a/content/article/urosmatic.md +++ b/content/article/urosmatic.md @@ -1,30 +1,7 @@ --- title: "Gender as Frame of War in Ancient Nubia" authors: ["urosmatic.md"] -abstract: "Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is -still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in -investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written -from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, -army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The -experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, -such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. -The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This -paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women -and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, -feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in -war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the -study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8^th^ century BC to -4^th^ century AD). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were -represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary -opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian -sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the -second and first millennium BC. Such a frame of war was based on a -gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and -weak. It "naturalized" Kushite domination over their enemies just as it -"naturalized" male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the -participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions -smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be -utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power." +abstract: Gender research in the archaeology of the Sudan and Meroitic studies is still a nascent field. Studies of gender are especially lacking in investigations concerning war and violence, which are usually written from an androcentric perspective, and often focus solely on soldiers, army, weaponry, battle representations, and images of enemies. The experiences of non-combatants in the context of war in ancient Nubia, such as women, children, and non-combating men, are rarely considered. The same tendency is observable with the gender background of war. This paper deals with gender structure in the lists of spoils of war, women and children as prisoners of war in representations of battle aftermath, feminization of enemies in royal texts, participation of royal women in war, and depictions of royal women smiting enemies. The sources for the study come from the Napatan and Meroitic periods (8th century BCE to 4th century CE). In gender as a frame of war, Kushite kings were represented as masculine, and their enemies as feminine. This binary opposition has also been observed in ancient Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian sources, and was clearly a shared vocabulary of the great powers of the second and first millennium BCE. Such a frame of war was based on a gender disposition of men as active and strong, and women as passive and weak. It “naturalized” Kushite domination over their enemies just as it “naturalized” male domination in ancient Sudanese society. However, the participation of Meroitic queens in conflicts and their depictions smiting enemies shows how the visual vocabulary of violence can be utilized even by some women, in their own expressions of power." keywords: ["ancient Nubia", "war", "violence", "gender", "women", "children"] --- @@ -157,7 +134,7 @@ as spoils of war during the reign of Taharqa, and enumerated according to ethnonyms or toponyms, can be found in his long inscription from Sanam.[^24] -On the Enthronement stela of Anlamani (late 7^th^ century BC) from Kawa +On the Enthronement stela of Anlamani (late 7th century BC) from Kawa (Kawa VIII, lines 19-20, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Æ.I.N. 1709) it is stated that his soldiers gained control of all the women, children, small cattle and property in the land Bulahau @@ -166,12 +143,12 @@ female servants of the gods.[^25] This indicates that Anlamani, like Taharqa, appointed at least some prisoners of war to the temples.[^26] In the Annals of Harsiyotef (Cairo JE 48864, lines 68-70) from his -35^th^ reginal year in the early 4^th^ century BC, the king states that +35th regnal year in the early 4th century BC, the king states that he gave booty (*ḥ3ḳ*) to Amun of Napata, 50 men, 50 women, together making 100.[^27] The text (line 87-88) further states that the king took, among others, male and female servants in the land of Metete.[^28] Likewise, in the Annals of Nastasen (Stela Berlin ÄMP 2268, lines -44-46), from his 8^th^ regal year in the last third of the 4^th^ century +44-46), from his 8th regnal year in the last third of the 4th century BC, the king states that he gave a total of 110 men and women to Amun of Napata.[^29] As noted by Jeremy Pope, there is no reason to impose here an artificial distinction between a donation text and a record of @@ -216,7 +193,7 @@ scarce, and our current understanding of the language is not on a level which would allow a detailed reading of most of the preserved texts. Nevertheless, several experts in Meroitic language and script have recognized the mentioning of prisoners of war in the Hamadab Stela of -Amanirenas and Akinidad (British Museum 1650) from the late 1^st^ +Amanirenas and Akinidad (British Museum 1650) from the late 1st century BC.[^38] According to the new reading of Claude Rilly, the second (small) Hamadab stela (REM 1039) mentions Akinidad and the sites where the Roman prefect Petronius fought against the Meroites, namely @@ -338,7 +315,7 @@ in front of them (Figure 1). ![Relief blocks from the north wall of M250](../static/images/matic/fig1.jpg "Relief blocks from the north wall of M250") -**~~Figure 1. Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 in the sequence east-west (redrawn after [Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140--141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).~~** +**~~Figure 1. Relief blocks from the north wall of M250 in the sequence east-west (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*: 140--141, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42).~~** The women and children are preceded by men with oval shields and cattle @@ -370,7 +347,7 @@ women are depicted as prisoners of war next to children (Figure 2). ![Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250](../static/images/matic/fig2.jpg "Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250") -**~~Figure 2. Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250 with fragmented depictions of imprisoned women and children, line drawing (redrawn after [Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 2b*: C11).~~** +**~~Figure 2. Relief blocks (fragments 943+185+180 and 222) of the south wall of M250 with fragmented depictions of imprisoned women and children, line drawing (redrawn after Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 2b*: C11).~~** Unlike the women from the north wall, the women from the south wall are @@ -390,7 +367,7 @@ row being tied on the same rope (fragments 136, 943, 189, 34, 102, 39, ![Empty oval name rings on the northern part of the pylon of M250](../static/images/matic/fig3.jpg "Empty oval name rings on the northern part of the pylon of M250") -**~~Figure 3. Empty oval name rings on the northern part of the pylon of M250 (redrawn after HINKEL, Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1: 139; Abb. 37b).~~** +**~~Figure 3. Empty oval name rings on the northern part of the pylon of M250 (redrawn after Hinkel, Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1: 139; Abb. 37b).~~** Hinkel related the construction of the M250 temple to the treaty that @@ -442,7 +419,7 @@ in Kushite war discourse. One attestation for the feminization of enemies, with, to the best of my knowledge, no parallels, is found on the Triumphal Stela of Piye (Cairo -JE 48862, 47086-47089, lines 149-150), the founder of the 25^th^ Dynasty +JE 48862, 47086-47089, lines 149-150), the founder of the 25th Dynasty of Egypt, who ruled between 744-714 BC: "Now these kings and counts of Lower Egypt came to behold His Majesty's beauty, their legs being the legs of women." *js gr nn \ nswt ḥ3(tj)w-^c^ nw T3-mḥw jj r m33 nfrw @@ -496,7 +473,7 @@ not directly communicated but it might be that it was implied. There are other attestations of the feminization of enemies in texts composed for the Kushite kings. In the Annals of Harsiyotef (Cairo JE 48864, line 89) we are informed about his conflicts with the Mededet -people in his 6^th^ regnal year. After taking spoils of war, the ruler +people in his 6th regnal year. After taking spoils of war, the ruler of Mededet was sent to Harsiyotef, saying: "You are my god. I am your servant. I am a woman. Come to me" (*ntk p(3)=j* *nṯr* *jnk p(3)=k b3k* *jnk* *sḥmt* *my j-r=j*).[^88] In this attestation, we have a direct @@ -511,7 +488,7 @@ sources.[^89] # Meroitic Non-royal and Royal Women in War -In Diodorus Siculus (1^st^ century BC), Agatharchides reports how the +In Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), Agatharchides reports how the Ethiopians employed women in war: "They also arm their women, defining for them a military age. It is customary for most of these women to have a bronze ring through one of their lips".[^90] This is repeated by @@ -535,14 +512,14 @@ towards foreign women, in the works of Strabo.[^94] Still, that the soldiers in the Roman army knew of a woman that was referred to by her subjects simply as *kandake* is also demonstrated by a ballista ball (British Museum EA 71839) with a carbon-ink inscription -KANAΞH/Kandaxe from Qasr Ibrim. On the ball, the second and third lines +KANΔAΞH/Kandaxe from Qasr Ibrim. On the ball, the second and third lines of text can be understood as a personal message for the queen: "Just right for you Kandaxe!".[^95] Clearly, it is questionable if the ones who actually found themselves in Nubia during the conflict with Meroe knew the name of the enemy ruler. It is also possible that they knew, but referred to her as everyone else. -# Meroitic QQueens and Enemies: Iconographic Evidence +# Meroitic Queens and Enemies: Iconographic Evidence The smiting of an enemy scene originates from ancient Egyptian iconography, with its earliest known evidence found in tomb 100 in @@ -570,17 +547,17 @@ Nefertiti is nevertheless not the dominant figure in such depictions. The dominant figure remains the smiting king because of the gender of the enemies he smites. Male enemies were considered more dangerous than female. When a female ruler like Hatshepsut (ca. 1479-1458 BC) of the -18^th^ Dynasty is depicted smiting or trampling male enemies, she +18th Dynasty is depicted smiting or trampling male enemies, she herself is depicted as a king- a man- and her identity is indicated by the accompanying text containing her name and royal titles.[^100] ![Amanishakheto spearing enemies](../static/images/matic/fig4.jpg "Amanishakheto spearing enemies") -**~~Figure 4. Amanishakheto spearing enemies, pylon, pyramid Begrawiya North 6, line drawing ([Chapman & [Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 17).~~** +**~~Figure 4. Amanishakheto spearing enemies, pylon, pyramid Begrawiya North 6, line drawing (Chapman & Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 17).~~** The Meroitic case is interesting precisely because certain royal women -can be depicted smiting and spearing male enemies. Amanishakheto (1^st^ +can be depicted smiting and spearing male enemies. Amanishakheto (1st century AD) is depicted spearing enemies on the pylon of her pyramid Begrawiya North 6 in Meroe, both to the left and right of the pylon entrance (Figure 4). On the left she holds a bow, an arrow, and a rope @@ -596,26 +573,26 @@ bound enemies.[^102] ![Shanakdakheto sitting on a throne with bound enemies underneath](../static/images/matic/fig5.jpg "Shanakdakheto sitting on a throne with bound enemies underneath") -**~~Figure 5. Shanakdakheto sitting on a throne with bound enemies underneath, north wall, pyramid Begrawiya North 11, line drawing ([Chapman & [Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 7A).~~** +**~~Figure 5. Shanakdakheto sitting on a throne with bound enemies underneath, north wall, pyramid Begrawiya North 11, line drawing (Chapman & Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 7A).~~** Bound enemies are additionally depicted under the throne of the queen on the north wall of pyramid Begrawiya North 11 attributed to Shanakdakheto, ca. 170-125 BC (Figure 5).[^103] Nine bows, the traditional symbol for enemies originating from ancient Egypt, are -depicted under the throne of Amanitore, of the 1^st^ century AD (Figure +depicted under the throne of Amanitore, of the 1st century AD (Figure 6), just as they are depicted under the throne of Natakamani in the pyramid Begrawiya North 1 of queen Amanitore.[^104] ![Amanitore sitting on a throne with the nine bows underneath](../static/images/matic/fig6.jpg "Amanitore sitting on a throne with the nine bows underneath") -**~~Figure 6. Amanitore sitting on a throne with the nine bows underneath, south wall, pyramid Begrawiya North 1, line drawing ([Chapman & [Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 18B).~~** +**~~Figure 6. Amanitore sitting on a throne with the nine bows underneath, south wall, pyramid Begrawiya North 1, line drawing (Chapman & Dunham. *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 18B).~~** ![Natakamani and Amanitore smiting enemies](../static/images/matic/fig7.jpg "Natakamani and Amanitore smiting enemies") -**~~Figure 7. Natakamani and Amanitore smiting enemies, pylon of the temple of Naqa, line drawing ([Lepsius, *Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien* 10, B1. 56).~~** +**~~Figure 7. Natakamani and Amanitore smiting enemies, pylon of the temple of Naqa, line drawing (Lepsius, *Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien* 10, B1. 56).~~** Amanitore is depicted smiting enemies on the pylon of the Lion Temple in @@ -636,7 +613,7 @@ kings, but did not take the argument further. The reason for the creation of these scenes can be seen in the specific status of royal women in Meroitic ideology.[^107] However, we also have to bear in mind that, considering the number of known Napatan and Meroitic royal women, -the smiting scenes of Amanishakheto and Amanitore in the 1^st^ century +the smiting scenes of Amanishakheto and Amanitore in the 1st century AD are an exception rather than rule. Interestingly, the smiting and trampling scenes of Tiye and Nefertiti are also an exception rather than the rule, and this exception in ancient Egyptian iconography has so far @@ -689,7 +666,7 @@ potential traces of trauma on the skeletons would be more indicative, however both could also be found in burials without such associated weapons. Nevertheless, one should not exclude the possibility that Meroitic queens made military decisions, just like, for example, the -17^th^ Dynasty queen Ahmose or the 18^th^ Dynasty queen Hatshepsut in +17th Dynasty queen Ahmose or the 18th Dynasty queen Hatshepsut in Egypt[^113], though they probably did not fight in war. The depictions of Meroitic queens smiting enemies should be seen in the context of royal ideology. Unlike Egyptian queens, who are depicted as women @@ -747,7 +724,7 @@ AD, vols. I-- III*. Bergen: University of Bergen, 1994-1998. Burstein, Stanley. "The Nubian Slave Trade in Antiquity: A Suggestion." 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In *Women in +Phillips, Jacke. "Women in Ancient Nubia." In *Women in Antiquity: Real Women across the Ancient World*, edited by Stephanie -Lynn Budin and Jean MacIntosh Turfa. London and New York: Routledge, -2016: pp. 280--298. +Lynn Budin and Jean MacIntosh Turfa, pp. 280--298. London and New York: Routledge, +2016. Pomerantseva, Natalia A. "The View on Meroitic Kings and Queens as it is Reflected in their Iconography." In *Studien zum antiken Sudan. Akten der 7. Internationalen Tagung für meroitistische Forschungen vom 14. bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin*. Meroitica. Schriften zur altsudanesischen Geschichte und Archäologie 15, -edited by Steffen Wenig. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999: pp. 622--632. +edited by Steffen Wenig, pp. 622--632. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999. Pope, Jeremy. *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 69. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2014. @@ -1024,12 +999,12 @@ and History of the Ancient Near East 69. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2014. Raue, Dietrich. (ed.) *Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Vols. I and II*. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019. -Redford, Donald. "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya". +Redford, Donald. "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya." *Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies* 24 (1993): pp. 188--191. Revez, Jean. "Une stèle inédite de la Troisième Période Intermédiaire à -Karnak: une guerre civile en Thébaïde?" *Cahiers de Karnak* 11 (2003), +Karnak: une guerre civile en Thébaïde?" *Cahiers de Karnak* 11 (2003): pp. 535--569. Rilly, Claude. "New Advances in the Understanding of Royal @@ -1039,8 +1014,8 @@ http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/meroe2008/abstracts/Abstract%20Rilly.pdf Rilly, Claude. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." In *Königsstadt Naga. Grabungen in der Wüste des Sudan*, edited by Karla -Kröper, Sylvia Schoske and Dietrich Wildung. München-Berlin: Staatliches -Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, 2011: pp. 176--201. +Kröper, Sylvia Schoske and Dietrich Wildung, pp. 176--201. München-Berlin: Staatliches +Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, 2011. Rilly, Claude. "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of the War Between Rome and Meroe." *13th Conference for Nubian Studies, Sep @@ -1058,14 +1033,14 @@ Shinnie, Peter L. and Bradley, Rebecca J. "The Murals from the Augustus Temple, Meroe." In *Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan; Essays in honor of Dows Dunham on the occasion of his 90th birthday, June 1, 1980*, edited by William Kelly -Simpson. Boston: Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near -Eastern Art, Museum of Fine Arts, 1981: pp. 167--172. +Simpson, pp. 167--172. Boston: Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near +Eastern Art, Museum of Fine Arts, 1981. Sørensen, Marie Louise Stig. *Gender Archaeology*. -Cambridge: Polity Press. +Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000. Spalinger, Anthony J. "Notes on the military in Egypt -during the XXVth Dynasty*.*" *Journal of the Society for the Study of +during the XXVth Dynasty." *Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities* 11 (1981): pp. 37--58. Spalinger, Anthony J. *The Persistence of Memory in Kush. @@ -1074,7 +1049,7 @@ Pianchy and His Temple*. Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Spalinger, Anthony J. *Leadership under fire: thre pressures of warfare in Ancient Egypt. Four leçons at the Collège de -France. Paris, June 2019*. Pairs: Soleb, 2020. +France. Paris, June 2019*. Paris: Soleb, 2020. Strathern, Marylin. *Before and After Gender. Sexual Mythologies of Everyday Life*. Chicago: HAU Books, 2016. @@ -1083,8 +1058,8 @@ Taterka, Filip. "Military expeditions of King Hatshepsut." In *Current Research in Egyptology 2016. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium. Jagiellonian University, Krakow 2016*, edited by Julia M. Chyla, Joanna Dębowska-Ludwin, Karolina -Rosińska-Balik and Carl Walsh. Oxford: Oxbow -Books, 2017: pp. 90--106 +Rosińska-Balik and Carl Walsh, pp. 90--106. Oxford: Oxbow +Books, 2017. Török, László. *Meroe City, an Ancient African Capital: John Garstang\'s excavations in the Sudan*. London: Egypt Exploration @@ -1102,20 +1077,20 @@ Török, László. "Sacred Landscape, Historical Identity and Memory: Aspects of Napatan and Meroitic Urban Architecture." In *Nubian Studies 1998. Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the International Society of Nubian Studies. August 21-26, 1998, Boston, Massachusetts*, -edited by T. Kendall. Boston: Department of African-American Studies -Northeastern University, 2004: pp. 14--23. +edited by T. Kendall, pp. 14--23. Boston: Department of African-American Studies +Northeastern University, 2004. Török, László. *Between the Two Worlds: The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC-500 AD*. Probleme der Ägyptologie 29. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2009. -Williamson, Jacquelyn, "Alone before the God: Gender, -Status, and Nefertiti's Image" *Journal of the American Research Center +Williamson, Jacquelyn. "Alone before the God: Gender, +Status, and Nefertiti's Image." *Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt* 51 (2015): pp. 179--192. -Wilkins, Alan., Barnard, Hans & -Rose, J. Pamela. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, -Egypt" *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64--78. +Wilkins, Alan, Hans Barnard and Pamela J. +Rose. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, +Egypt." *Sudan and Nubia* 10 (2006): pp. 64--78. Wenig, Steffen (ed.). *Africa in Antiquity. The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan. I. The Essays. II. The Catalogue*. New @@ -1124,134 +1099,134 @@ York: Brooklyn Museum, 1978. Wöß, Florian. "The Representations of Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art." In *The Kushite World. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Meroitic Studies, Vienna, 1-4 September -2008*. Beiträre zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach. Vienna: -Verein der. Förderer der Sudanforschung, 2015: pp. 585--600. +2008*. Beiträre zur Sudanforschung 8, edited by Michael H. Zach, pp. 585--600. Vienna: +Verein der. Förderer der Sudanforschung, 2015. Zach, Michael H. "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM -1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." Sudan and Nubia 21 (2007): pp. 148--150. +1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." *Sudan and Nubia* 21 (2007): pp. 148--150. Žižek, Slavoj. *Violence. Six Sideways Reflections*. New York: Picador, 2008. -[^1]: For criticism of androcentrism, see [Conkey & - Spector]{.smallcaps}, "Archaeology and the Study of Gender." 5--14; +[^1]: For criticism of androcentrism, see Conkey & + Spector, "Archaeology and the Study of Gender." 5--14; for criticism of heteronormative interpretations of the past, see - [Dowson]{.smallcaps}, "Why Queer Archaeology? An Introduction." + Dowson, "Why Queer Archaeology? An Introduction." 161--165; for giving voices to ancient women and recognizing different genders behind the archaeological record, see - [Gilchrist,]{.smallcaps} *Gender and Archaeology*; - [Sørensen,]{.smallcaps} *Gender Archaeology*; - [Díaz-Andreu]{.smallcaps}, "Gender identity." 1--42, for viewing - gender as a system, see [Conkey & Spector,]{.smallcaps} "Archaeology + Gilchrist, *Gender and Archaeology*; + Sørensen, *Gender Archaeology*; + Díaz-Andreu, "Gender identity." 1--42, for viewing + gender as a system, see Conkey & Spector, "Archaeology and the Study of Gender." 4--16, for gender as a result of - performative practice, see [Perry & Joyce]{.smallcaps}, " Providing + performative practice, see Perry & Joyce, "Providing a past for Bodies that Matter: Judith Butler\'s impact on the archaeology of gender". The literature in gender archaeology is vast and these are only some frequently quoted studies. -[^2]: [Haaland & Haaland]{.smallcaps}, "Who Speaks the Goddess's - Language?"; [Haaland]{.smallcaps}, "Emergence of sedentism"; - [Nordström]{.smallcaps}, "Gender and social structure in the Nubian +[^2]: Haaland & Haaland, "Who Speaks the Goddess's + Language?"; Haaland, "Emergence of sedentism"; + Nordström, "Gender and social structure in the Nubian A-group". -[^3]: [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. *Die königlichen Frauen*; - [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. "Queenship in Kush: Status, role and - ideology of royal women", 61--76; [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. "The Role +[^3]: Lohwasser, *Die königlichen Frauen*; + Lohwasser, "Queenship in Kush: Status, role and + ideology of royal women", 61--76; Lohwasser. "The Role and Status of Royal Women in Kush" 61--72. -[^4]: [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. "Gibt es mehr als zwei Geschlechter? Zum +[^4]: Lohwasser, "Gibt es mehr als zwei Geschlechter? Zum Verhältnis von Gender und Alter", 33--41. -[^5]: [Phillips]{.smallcaps}. "Women in Ancient Nubia" 280--298; The +[^5]: Phillips, "Women in Ancient Nubia" 280--298; The necessity of studying gender, rather than focusing solely on women - has also been emphasized recently, [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps} & - [Philipps]{.smallcaps}, "Women in Ancient Kush", 1015--1032. + has also been emphasized recently, Lohwasser & + Philipps, "Women in Ancient Kush", 1015--1032. -[^6]: [Hafsaas-Tsakos]{.smallcaps}, "Edges of bronze and expressions of - masculinity"; [Karlsson]{.smallcaps}, "Gender and Kushite State +[^6]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of bronze and expressions of + masculinity"; Karlsson, "Gender and Kushite State Ideology". [^7]: The contributions in the volume are entirely devoid of gender - perspectives, [Raue]{.smallcaps}. *Handbook of Ancient Nubia*. For + perspectives, Raue, *Handbook of Ancient Nubia*. For example, the new *Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia* has an entry on women in ancient Kush and on the body, but no entry on gender. Other contributions are entirely devoid of gender perspectives. [^8]: Among these are the questions of ability and disability, gender - and intersectionality, and masculinity. [Danielsson]{.smallcaps} & - [Thedéen]{.smallcaps}. *To Tender Gender*. + and intersectionality, and masculinity. Danielsson & + Thedéen, *To Tender Gender*. -[^9]: [Jensen]{.smallcaps} & [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Introduction: Why do +[^9]: Jensen & Matić, "Introduction: Why do we need archaeologies of gender and violence, and why now?" 1--23. -[^10]: [Bourdieu]{.smallcaps}. *Masculine Domination*, 1--2; Bourdieu. - "Symbolic Violence" 339--342; [Žižek]{.smallcaps}. *Violence. Six +[^10]: Bourdieu, *Masculine Domination*, 1--2; Bourdieu, + "Symbolic Violence" 339--342; Žižek, *Violence. Six Sideways Reflections,* 1--2; For the application of these concepts - in archaeology and Egyptology, see [Jensen]{.smallcaps} & - [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Introduction: Why do we need archaeologies of - gender and violence, and why now?" 1--23; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. + in archaeology and Egyptology, see Jensen & + Matić, "Introduction: Why do we need archaeologies of + gender and violence, and why now?" 1--23; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and Children in NK Battle Scenes." - 245--260; Matić. *Body and Frames of War*, 139--148; - [Matić]{.smallcaps}, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. + 245--260; Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, 139--148; + Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^11]: For example, see, [Kuhrt.]{.smallcaps} "Women and War." 1--25. +[^11]: For example, see, Kuhrt, "Women and War." 1--25. -[^12]: [Matić]{.smallcaps} "Die \'\'römische\'\' Feinde in der - meroitischen Kunst." 251--262; [Spalinger]{.smallcaps}. *The - Persistence of Memory in Kush*. [Spalinger,]{.smallcaps} *Leadership - under fire,* 201--242; [Wöß]{.smallcaps}. "The Representations of +[^12]: Matić, "Die \'\'römische\'\' Feinde in der + meroitischen Kunst." 251--262; Spalinger, *The + Persistence of Memory in Kush*. Spalinger, *Leadership + under fire,* 201--242; Wöß, "The Representations of Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art." 585--600. -[^13]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and +[^13]: Matić, "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and violence in depictions of Queen Nefertiti smiting the enemies." - 103--121; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and - Children in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Body - and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, 139--148; Matić. *Violence + 103--121; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and + Children in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; Matić, *Body + and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, 139--148; Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^14]: [Butler]{.smallcaps}. *Frames of War*, 1--10. +[^14]: Butler, *Frames of War*, 1--10. -[^15]: [Butler]{.smallcaps}. *Frames of War*, 26. +[^15]: Butler, *Frames of War*, 26. -[^16]: [Butler]{.smallcaps}. *Frames of War*, 65. +[^16]: Butler, *Frames of War*, 65. -[^17]: [Butler]{.smallcaps}. *The Force of Non-Violence*, 6. +[^17]: Butler, *The Force of Non-Violence*, 6. -[^18]: Crenshaw "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A +[^18]: Crenshaw, "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". -[^19]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "The best of the booty of His Majesty: +[^19]: Matić, "The best of the booty of His Majesty: Evidence for foreign child labor in New Kingdom Egypt." 53--63; - [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Begehrte Beute. Fremde Frauen als Raubgut im + Matić, "Begehrte Beute. Fremde Frauen als Raubgut im Alten Ägypten." 15--18. [^20]: The author is currently working on a comprehensive study of the ancient Egyptian and Nubian lists of spoils of war from the Egyptian - Early Dynastic to Nubian Meroitic period, [Matić]{.smallcaps}, + Early Dynastic to Nubian Meroitic period, Matić, "Pharaonic Plunder Economy". -[^21]: [Macadam]{.smallcaps}. *The Temples of Kawa I. Text,* 9; - [Macadam]{.smallcaps}. *The Temples of Kawa I. Plates*, Pls. 5-6; +[^21]: Macadam, *The Temples of Kawa I. Text,* 9; + Macadam, *The Temples of Kawa I. Plates*, Pls. 5-6; FHN I, 175. -[^22]: [Macadam]{.smallcaps}. *The Temples of Kawa I*. *Text*, 36; - [Macadam]{.smallcaps}. *The Temples of Kawa I.* *Plates*, Pls. +[^22]: Macadam. *The Temples of Kawa I*. *Text*, 36; + Macadam, *The Temples of Kawa I.* *Plates*, Pls. 11--12; FHN I, 173. -[^23]: [Redford]{.smallcaps}. "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya." 190. +[^23]: Redford, "Taharqa in Western Asia and Libya." 190. The stela actually does not bear the name of Taharqa and Jean Revez attributed it to an entirely different dynasty, Revez, "Une stèle inédite de la Troisième Période Intermédiaire à Karnak: une guerre civile en Thébaïde?". -[^24]: Pope. *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*, 98-106. +[^24]: Pope, *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*, 98-106. -[^25]: [Macadam]{.smallcaps}. *The Temples of Kawa I. Plates*, Pl. 15; +[^25]: Macadam, *The Temples of Kawa I. Plates*, Pl. 15; FHN I, 222. [^26]: For appointing prisoners of war to temples and temple workshops - in New Kingdom Egypt see, [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "The best of the + in New Kingdom Egypt see, Matić, "The best of the booty of His Majesty: Evidence for foreign child labor in New Kingdom Egypt." 53--63. @@ -1259,9 +1234,9 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^28]: FHN II, 449. -[^29]: FHN II, 487; [Peust]{.smallcaps}. *Das Napatanische*, 40. +[^29]: FHN II, 487; Peust, *Das Napatanische*, 40. -[^30]: [Pope]{.smallcaps}. *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*, 105. +[^30]: Pope, *The Double Kingdom under Taharqo*, 105. [^31]: FHN II, 488. @@ -1277,189 +1252,189 @@ York: Picador, 2008. [^36]: FHN II, 491. -[^37]: [Török]{.smallcaps}. "Sacred Landscape, Historical Identity and +[^37]: Török, "Sacred Landscape, Historical Identity and Memory." 161; For the same practice in ancient Egypt, at least until - the New Kingdom, see [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "The best of the booty of + the New Kingdom, see Matić, "The best of the booty of His Majesty: Evidence for foreign child labor in New Kingdom Egypt." 53--63. [^38]: FHN II; 722-723; The connection to the conflict with Rome has - been challenged since, [Zach]{.smallcaps}. "A Remark on the + been challenged since, Zach, "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM 1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." 148. -[^39]: [Rilly]{.smallcaps}. "New Advances in the Understanding of Royal - Meroitic Inscriptions."; [Rilly]{.smallcaps}. "Meroitische Texte aus - Naga."; [Rilly]{.smallcaps}. "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of +[^39]: Rilly, "New Advances in the Understanding of Royal + Meroitic Inscriptions."; Rilly, "Meroitische Texte aus + Naga."; Rilly, "Fragments of the Meroitic Report of the War Between Rome and Meroe." -[^40]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 209; - see also [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Meroe City*, 104. +[^40]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 209; + see also Török, *Meroe City*, 104. -[^41]: [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Meroe City*, 104. +[^41]: Török, *Meroe City*, 104. -[^42]: [Török]{.smallcaps}. *The Kingdom of Kush*, 401; - [Török]{.smallcaps}. *The Image of the Ordered World*, 219--220. +[^42]: Török, *The Kingdom of Kush*, 401; + Török, *The Image of the Ordered World*, 219--220. -[^43]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 262. +[^43]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 262. -[^44]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*; - [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 2b*. +[^44]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*; + Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 2b*. [^45]: He adds that the archaizing iconography and style of the war reliefs of the south and north walls of M250 were based on 25th dynasty Kushite monuments, and supposes that this archaizing iconography was mediated by the early temple at the site, which was built during Aspelta's reign, and whose reliefs could have been - copied on M250, [Török.]{.smallcaps} *The Image of the Ordered + copied on M250, Török, *The Image of the Ordered World*, 213. The 25th dynasty connections are seen, for example, in the motif of spearing the enemy using a lance by piercing the enemy almost horizontally from above-fragments 809, 876, 828, 808, 857, - 836, 916, 917, 928, [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe + 836, 916, 917, 928, Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250*. I. 2b. This motif is known from the Amun temple at Gebel - Barkal B500, from the reign of Piye, [Spalinger]{.smallcaps}. "Notes + Barkal B500, from the reign of Piye, Spalinger, "Notes on the military in Egypt during the XXVth Dynasty." 48, Figs. 3 and 4. -[^46]: [Wenig]{.smallcaps}. *Africa in Antiquity*, 59--60. +[^46]: Wenig, *Africa in Antiquity*, 59--60. -[^47]: [Hofmann]{.smallcaps}. "Notizen zu den Kampfszenen am sogenannten +[^47]: Hofmann, "Notizen zu den Kampfszenen am sogenannten Sonnentempel von Meroe." 519--521. -[^48]: [Chapman & Dunham]{.smallcaps}. *Decorated Chapels of the +[^48]: Chapman & Dunham, *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 17. -[^49]: [Shinnie]{.smallcaps} & [Bradley]{.smallcaps}. "The Murals from - the Augustus Temple, Meroe." 168, Fig. 1; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Der +[^49]: Shinnie & Bradley, "The Murals from + the Augustus Temple, Meroe." 168, Fig. 1; Matić, "Der Kopf einer Augustus-Statue aus Meroe". 70, Abb. 7. -[^50]: [Wöß]{.smallcaps}. "The Representations of Captives and Enemies +[^50]: Wöß, "The Representations of Captives and Enemies in Meroitic Art." 589. -[^51]: [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. "Kush and her Neighbours beyond the Nile +[^51]: Lohwasser, "Kush and her Neighbours beyond the Nile Valley In The Fourth Cataract and Beyond." 131. -[^52]: FHN III, 831; [Jones]{.smallcaps}. *Strabo. The Geography Vol. +[^52]: FHN III, 831; Jones, *Strabo. The Geography Vol. VIII*, 139. -[^53]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, +[^53]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 189--190. -[^54]: [Minas-Nerpel]{.smallcaps} & [Pfeiffer]{.smallcaps}. +[^54]: Minas-Nerpel & Pfeiffer, "Establishing Roman Rule in Egypt: The Trilingual Stela of C. Cornelius Gallus from Philae." 285--288. -[^55]: [Kormysheva]{.smallcaps}. "Political relations between the Roman - Empire." 306; [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Between the Two Worlds*, +[^55]: Kormysheva, "Political relations between the Roman + Empire." 306; Török, *Between the Two Worlds*, 434--436. -[^56]: [Jameson]{.smallcaps}. "Chronology of the Campaigns of Aelius - Gallus and C. Petronius." 77; [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Between the Two +[^56]: Jameson, "Chronology of the Campaigns of Aelius + Gallus and C. Petronius." 77; Török, *Between the Two Worlds*, 441. -[^57]: [Török.]{.smallcaps} *The Kingdom of Kush*, 449; - [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Between the Two Worlds*, 441. +[^57]: Török, *The Kingdom of Kush*, 449; + Török, *Between the Two Worlds*, 441. -[^58]: [Török]{.smallcaps}. *Meroe City*, 185. +[^58]: Török, *Meroe City*, 185. -[^59]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 142. +[^59]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 142. -[^60]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 139. +[^60]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 139. -[^61]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, +[^61]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 140--141, 257, Abb. 39, 40, 41, 42; Abb. 95. -[^62]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 140. +[^62]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 140. 257; Abb. 38, Abb. 95. -[^63]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250*. I. 2b, C10. +[^63]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250*. I. 2b, C10. -[^64]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250*. I. 2b, C10. +[^64]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250*. I. 2b, C10. [^65]: For example, in tribute scenes from the tombs of Useramun-TT 131, Rekhmire-TT 100, Horemhab-TT 78 but also the Beit el-Wali temple of - Ramesses II, [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Children on the move: ms.w wr.w + Ramesses II, Matić, "Children on the move: ms.w wr.w in the New Kingdom procession scenes." 378--379, Fig. 12. -[^66]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 189. +[^66]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 189. -[^67]: FHN III, 831; [Jones]{.smallcaps}. *Strabo. The Geography Vol. +[^67]: FHN III, 831; Jones, *Strabo. The Geography Vol. VIII*, 139. -[^68]: [Hinkel]{.smallcaps}. *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, +[^68]: Hinkel, *Der Tempelkomplex Meroe 250. I. 1*, 138--139, Abb. 37b. -[^69]: [Török]{.smallcaps}. *The Image of the Ordered World,* 220; - [Breyer]{.smallcaps}. *Einführung in die Meroitistik*, 67. +[^69]: Török, *The Image of the Ordered World,* 220; + Breyer, *Einführung in die Meroitistik*, 67. -[^70]: FHN III, 831; [Jones]{.smallcaps}. *Strabo. The Geography Vol. +[^70]: FHN III, 831; Jones, *Strabo. The Geography Vol. VIII*, 139. -[^71]: [Rilly]{.smallcaps} & [De Voogt]{.smallcaps}. *The Meroitic +[^71]: Rilly & De Voogt, *The Meroitic Language and Writing System*, 185 -[^72]: [Rilly]{.smallcaps}. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." 190; - [Matić]{.smallcaps} "Die \'\'römische\'\' Feinde in der meroitischen +[^72]: Rilly, "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." 190; + Matić, "Die \'\'römische\'\' Feinde in der meroitischen Kunst." 258. -[^73]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and Children - in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Body and +[^73]: Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and Children + in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; Matić, *Body and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, 139--148. -[^74]: [Strathern]{.smallcaps}. *Before and After Gender*, 21. +[^74]: Strathern, *Before and After Gender*, 21. [^75]: Parkinson, "Homosexual' desire and Middle Kingdom literature"; - [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Body and Frames of War*, 139--148; - [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. + Matić, *Body and Frames of War*, 139--148; + Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^76]: [Grimal]{.smallcaps}. *La Stèle Triomphale,* 177; FHN I, 111. +[^76]: Grimal, *La Stèle Triomphale,* 177; FHN I, 111. -[^77]: [Grimal]{.smallcaps}. *La Stèle Triomphale*, 176. +[^77]: Grimal, *La Stèle Triomphale*, 176. -[^78]: [Goedicke]{.smallcaps}. *Pi(ankhy) in Egypt*, 172. +[^78]: Goedicke, *Pi(ankhy) in Egypt*, 172. -[^79]: [Ritner]{.smallcaps}. *The Libyan Anarchy*, 492. +[^79]: Ritner, *The Libyan Anarchy*, 492. -[^80]: [el Hawary]{.smallcaps}. *Wortschöpfung*, 243. +[^80]: el Hawary, *Wortschöpfung*, 243. -[^81]: [O'Connor]{.smallcaps} & [Quirke]{.smallcaps}. "Introduction: +[^81]: O'Connor & Quirke, "Introduction: Mapping the Unknown in Ancient Egypt." 18. [^82]: For a detailed analysis see Lavik, *A People Tall and Smooth-Skinned*. -[^83]: [el Hawary]{.smallcaps}. *Wortschöpfung*, 281. +[^83]: el Hawary, *Wortschöpfung*, 281. -[^84]: [Ritner]{.smallcaps}. *The Libyan Anarchy*. 477, 490. +[^84]: Ritner, *The Libyan Anarchy*. 477, 490. -[^85]: [Dieleman]{.smallcaps}, "Fear of Women?" 14. +[^85]: Dieleman, "Fear of Women?" 14. [^86]: FHN I, 84. -[^87]: [Karlsson]{.smallcaps}. "Gender and Kushite State Ideology". +[^87]: Karlsson, "Gender and Kushite State Ideology". [^88]: FHN II, 450. -[^89]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. +[^89]: Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. [^90]: FHN II, 653. [^91]: FHN III, 816. -[^92]: FHN III, 831; [Jones]{.smallcaps}. *Strabo. The Geography Vol. +[^92]: FHN III, 831; Jones, *Strabo. The Geography Vol. VII*I, 139. -[^93]: [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps}. "The Role and Status of Royal Women in - Kush" 64; [Lohwasser]{.smallcaps} & [Philipps]{.smallcaps}, "Women +[^93]: Lohwasser, "The Role and Status of Royal Women in + Kush" 64; Lohwasser & Philipps, "Women in Ancient Kush", 1021. -[^94]: [McCoskey]{.smallcaps}. "Gender at the crossroads of empire". +[^94]: McCoskey, "Gender at the crossroads of empire". 61--68. -[^95]: [Wilkins]{.smallcaps}, [Barnard]{.smallcaps} & - [Rose]{.smallcaps}. "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, Egypt." +[^95]: Wilkins, Barnard & + Rose, "Roman Artillery Balls from Qasr Ibrim, Egypt." 71, 75, Pl. 8, 4F. -[^96]: [Hall]{.smallcaps}. *The Pharaoh Smites His Enemy*, 44. +[^96]: Hall, *The Pharaoh Smites His Enemy*, 44. [^97]: Queen Tiye (ca. 1398-1338 BC) of the 18th Dynasty is depicted trampling over enemies in the guise of a female sphinx. Queen @@ -1467,60 +1442,60 @@ York: Picador, 2008. smiting enemies and trampling over them in the guise of a sphinx. I argued that we can observe a clear gender structure behind such images, and that the status of queens smiting enemies is lower than - the status of the king smiting male enemies, [Matić]{.smallcaps}. + the status of the king smiting male enemies, Matić, "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and violence in depictions of Queen Nefertiti smiting the enemies." 103--121. -[^98]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and +[^98]: Matić, "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and violence in depictions of Queen Nefertiti smiting the enemies." - 103--121; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and - Children in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Body + 103--121; Matić, "Traditionally Unharmed? Women and + Children in NK Battle Scenes." 245--260; Matić, *Body and Frames of War in New Kingdom Egypt*, 139--148. -[^99]: [Williamson]{.smallcaps}. "Alone before the God: Gender, Status, +[^99]: Williamson, "Alone before the God: Gender, Status, and Nefertiti's Image." 179--192. -[^100]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. +[^100]: Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. -[^101]: [Chapman]{.smallcaps} & [Dunham]{.smallcaps}. *Decorated Chapels +[^101]: Chapman & Dunham, *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 17. -[^102]: [Rilly]{.smallcaps}. "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." Abb. 218. +[^102]: Rilly, "Meroitische Texte aus Naga." Abb. 218. -[^103]: [Chapman]{.smallcaps} & [Dunham]{.smallcaps}. *Decorated Chapels +[^103]: Chapman & Dunham, *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pl. 7A. -[^104]: [Chapman]{.smallcaps} & [Dunham]{.smallcaps}. *Decorated Chapels +[^104]: Chapman & Dunham, *Decorated Chapels of the Meroitic Pyramids at Meroë and Barkal*, Pls. 18B. and 18D. -[^105]: [Gamer-Wallert]{.smallcaps}. *Der Löwentempel von Naqa in der +[^105]: Gamer-Wallert, *Der Löwentempel von Naqa in der Butana (Sudan) III*, Bl. 1-2. -[^106]: [Pomerantseva]{.smallcaps}. "The View on Meroitic Kings and +[^106]: Pomerantseva, "The View on Meroitic Kings and Queens as it is Reflected in their Iconography." 625. -[^107]: [Phillips]{.smallcaps}. "Women in Ancient Nubia" 292. +[^107]: Phillips, "Women in Ancient Nubia" 292. -[^108]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and +[^108]: Matić, "Her striking but cold beauty: Gender and violence in depictions of Queen Nefertiti smiting the enemies." 116--117. [^109]: For exceptionality and the possible divinization of Amanirenas - (1st century AD) see [Zach]{.smallcaps}. "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' + (1st century AD) see Zach, "A Remark on the 'Akinidad' Stela REM 1003 (British Museum EA 1650)." 149. -[^110]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}, "Pharaonic Plunder Economy". +[^110]: Matić, "Pharaonic Plunder Economy". -[^111]: [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. +[^111]: Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*. [^112]: For weapons in female burials of the Kerma period interpreted as - symbols of status, see, [Hafsaas-Tsakos]{.smallcaps}, "Edges of + symbols of status, see Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity." 89. Henriette - [Hafsaas-Tsakos]{.smallcaps} has in personal communication informed + Hafsaas-Tsakos has in personal communication informed me that she considers investigating this topic further and maybe revising her conclusions. [^113]: For the military activities of Ahmose and Hatshepsut see, - [Matić]{.smallcaps}. *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*; - [Taterka]{.smallcaps}. "Military expeditions of King Hatshepsut." + Matić, *Violence and Gender in Ancient Egypt*; + Taterka, "Military expeditions of King Hatshepsut." 90--106.