diff --git a/content/article/HafsaasWar.md b/content/article/HafsaasWar.md index 631adab..b6833fb 100644 --- a/content/article/HafsaasWar.md +++ b/content/article/HafsaasWar.md @@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ keywords: ["Warfare", "ethnicity", "headhunting", "schismogenesis", "Early Bronze Age", "Nubia", "Egypt"] --- - # Introduction Lower Nubia in today's southern Egypt has been studied by archaeologists @@ -22,13 +21,12 @@ the predecessors of the A-Group people were attacked by a band of Naqada warriors from Hierakonpolis in several deadly clashes that ultimately drove the A-Group predecessors south of Bab el-Kalabsha while Naqada peoples settled in the area between Bab el-Kalabsha and the First -Cataract (Map 1). +Cataract (Map 1). ![Northern Lower Nubia with sites dating to the mid-4th millenium BCE. Graphic: Henriette Hafsaas](../static/images/hafsaas/Map1.jpg "Northern Lower Nubia with sites dating to the mid-4th millenium BCE. Graphic: Henriette Hafsaas") **~~Map 1. Northern Lower Nubia with sites dating to the mid-4th millenium BCE. Graphic: Henriette Hafsaas.~~** - The evidence for the violent expansion is interpersonal violence leading to deaths and injuries among the A-Group predecessors, young males belonging to the Naqada people buried with @@ -38,10 +36,9 @@ as the Naqada people expanded into their territory. I will argue that the formation of the ethnic identity of the A-Group people was an ethnogenesis,[^1] as the distinctive material culture of the A-Group people became archaeologically visible around the middle of the 4th -millennium BCE (Table 1).[^2] +millennium BCE (Table 1).[^2] - -![Chronology for the A-Group people including cross-dating with Egypt.](../static/images/hafsaas/Table1.jpg "Chronology for the A-Group people including cross-dating with Egypt.") +![Chronology for the A-Group people including cross-dating with Egypt.](../static/images/hafsaas/Table1.JPG "Chronology for the A-Group people including cross-dating with Egypt.") **~~Table 1. Chronology for the A-Group people including cross-dating with Egypt.~~** @@ -51,7 +48,7 @@ practices as the Naqada people continued their expansion southwards. Headhunting probably affected the consolidation of ethnic identities among the A-Group and Naqada peoples, and the practice contributed to defining an ethnic boundary between the two ethnic groups in a process -of schismogenesis.  +of schismogenesis. The topic of this article is ethnogenesis, and especially how conflicts and competition affected the formation of ethnic identity. Ethnogenesis @@ -69,7 +66,7 @@ other. The geographical focus in this article is limited to the region between the First Cataract and Bab el-Kalabsha, which I will refer to as -northern Lower Nubia. *Bab el-Kalabsha* means 'Gate of Kalabsha' in +northern Lower Nubia. _Bab el-Kalabsha_ means 'Gate of Kalabsha' in Arabic. The toponym is descriptive as granite cliffs constricted the river to a width of only 220 metres, making this one of the narrowest passages of the Nile (Figure 1), while rocks and shoals broke the @@ -91,7 +88,7 @@ knowledge on violent practices in the Nile Valley at the beginning of the Bronze Age and the emergence of the A-Group people as an ethnic group in the mid-4th millennium BCE. -# Background +# Background The core area of ancient Egypt was the lower reaches of the Nile, where the river flows like an elongated oasis through the Sahara. Travelling @@ -113,8 +110,8 @@ three chiefdoms appeared around 3650 BCE.[^10] The political centralization culminated with the formation of the territorial state of dynastic Egypt around 3085 BCE.[^11] The time span from ca. 3750 to 3085 BCE is termed the Naqada period in Upper Egypt (see Table 1).[^12] I -will call the population in Upper Egypt during this epoch for *the -Naqada people* to signal their cultural unity and increasing communal +will call the population in Upper Egypt during this epoch for _the +Naqada people_ to signal their cultural unity and increasing communal self-awareness.[^13] In the latter half of the 4th millennium BCE, Lower Nubia was @@ -194,14 +191,14 @@ situational.[^30] The subjective approach can thus be complemented by an objective perspective incorporating the cultural contexts and social structures in which ethnic groups interact. G. Carter Bentley applied Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus for explaining ethnicity.[^31] -Habitus is a "*system of durable, transposable dispositions*" that +Habitus is a "_system of durable, transposable dispositions_" that characterize life in a particular environment.[^32] In this way, habitus can provide an objective grounding for the subjective construction of ethnic identity.[^33] The structural dispositions of habitus permeate the cultural practices and social relations typical for a distinct lifestyle,[^34] and habitus is thus a factor in forging ethnic identities.[^35] A relevant example of habitus for archaeologists is -"*ethnically specific suites of motor habits*" that develop with +"_ethnically specific suites of motor habits_" that develop with intentional and intensive training, such as pottery making.[^36] Ethnic identities of past peoples can leave traces in the archaeological @@ -231,7 +228,7 @@ were most probably made by a group of people with a collective identity. For Lower Nubia in the latter part of the 4th millennium BCE, I propose that this group identity was ethnicity.[^42] The ethnonym that this group used for themselves is unknown to us, but their land was -called "Ta-Sety" -- *Land of the Bow* -- according to inscriptions from +called "Ta-Sety" -- _Land of the Bow_ -- according to inscriptions from the beginning of the First Dynasty.[^43] The geographical distribution of pottery vessels, cosmetic palettes, and burial positions in Lower Nubia in the latter half of the 4th millennium BCE shows that Naqada @@ -253,7 +250,7 @@ territoriality, and Bab el-Kalabsha seems to be the location of the border. The situation was different earlier in the 4th millennium BCE, as we will see in the next section. -# The A-Group Predecessors in Northern Lower Nubia +# The A-Group Predecessors in Northern Lower Nubia According to David Wengrow, funerary rites were remarkably similar in the Nile Valley from the confluence of the Blue and White Niles to @@ -279,7 +276,7 @@ Smith, in accordance with other scholars.[^53] The material culture and cultural practices at these sites resemble the A-Group people more than the Naqada people, and these peoples were likely the direct forebearers of the A-Group people. I have therefore termed this earliest phase for -*the proto-phase of the A-Group* (see Table 1).[^54] +_the proto-phase of the A-Group_ (see Table 1).[^54] The earliest cemetery dating to the 4th millennium BCE in northern Lower Nubia has been identified as the graves on the south-eastern @@ -364,7 +361,7 @@ Naqada I. Khor Bahan is a large khor coming down from the high desert on the east bank ca. 10 kilometers south of Shellal. The alluvial fan below the khor offered considerable fertile land, [^76] and Cemetery 17 was located -here (Figure 3). +here (Figure 3). ![Cemetery 17 at Khor Bahan on the higher terrace of the khor, to the right of the white tents. The alluvial plain was already flooded behind the Aswan Dam as the palm trees would have lined the riverbank. Photo from Reisner (1910: plate 23/b). Colorized by cutout.pro.](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig3.jpg "Cemetery 17 at Khor Bahan on the higher terrace of the khor, to the right of the white tents. The alluvial plain was already flooded behind the Aswan Dam as the palm trees would have lined the riverbank. Photo from Reisner (1910: plate 23/b). Colorized by cutout.pro.") @@ -506,7 +503,7 @@ performed in absentia.[^102] This Naqada cemetery is extraordinary regarding war since several graves contained numerous weapons. Sixteen mace-heads were uncovered in twelve graves, and other weapons were found in four graves (see Appendix 1 -and Figure 4). +and Figure 4). ![Some of the mace-heads uncovered in the Naqada graves in Cemetery 17. a) Mace-head from grave 89. b) Mace-head from grave 70. c) Mace-head from grave 50. D) Mace-head from grave 88. Photos by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum, Aswan.](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig4.jpg "Some of the mace-heads uncovered in the Naqada graves in Cemetery 17. a) Mace-head from grave 89. b) Mace-head from grave 70. c) Mace-head from grave 50. D) Mace-head from grave 88. Photos by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum, Aswan.") @@ -518,7 +515,7 @@ chalcedony blades, and various types of arrowheads. Except for the lunates, these weapons were characteristic of the Naqada people. Some of the arrowheads had their closest parallels at Hierakonpolis in southern Upper Egypt, which suggests that this was the homeland of the -individuals buried in Cemetery 17 (Figure 5). +individuals buried in Cemetery 17 (Figure 5). ![a) Large concave-base arrowhead with long straight lobes (typical for Hierakonpolis) found in Naqada grave 50 in Cemetery 17. Courtesy of Nubia Museum in Aswan. b) Three tanged arrowheads with barbs found in Naqada grave 78 in Cemetery 17. Photos by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum in Aswan.](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig5.jpg "a) Large concave-base arrowhead with long straight lobes (typical for Hierakonpolis) found in Naqada grave 50 in Cemetery 17. Courtesy of Nubia Museum in Aswan. b) Three tanged arrowheads with barbs found in Naqada grave 78 in Cemetery 17. Photos by Alexandros Tsakos. Courtesy of Nubia Museum in Aswan.") @@ -575,7 +572,7 @@ on the unprovenanced Hunters' Palette carry the same types of weapons as found in Cemetery 17 at Khor Bahan and HK6 at Hierakonpolis: maces, spears, bows and arrows, and throw sticks. Furthermore, three hunting dogs were partaking in the lion hunt together with the men (Figure -6). +6). ![The Hunters’ Palette (BM EA 20790) depicting nineteen men and three hunting dogs in a lion hunt. Length: 30,5 cm. © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig6.jpg "The Hunters’ Palette (BM EA 20790) depicting nineteen men and three hunting dogs in a lion hunt. Length: 30,5 cm. © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).") @@ -671,7 +668,7 @@ had antemortem fractures related to violence (Appendix 4). The male in grave 29 had fractured the distal portion of the right ulna,[^142] which suggests a parry fracture caused when fending a blow to the head.[^143] Additionally, the mid-point of the left clavicle had a -healed fracture (Figure 7a).[^144] +healed fracture (Figure 7a).[^144] ![Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig7a.jpg "Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 74).") @@ -697,7 +694,7 @@ Cemetery 45 (Appendix 6). The elderly male in grave 211 appears to have been executed by having the back of his neck cut with a sharp instrument. This individual received seven incisions across the posterior surface of three of the cervical vertebrae (Figure -8).[^148] +8).[^148] ![The man in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig8.jpg "The man in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).") @@ -796,7 +793,7 @@ without heads dating to the proto-phase in northern Lower Nubia belonged to A-Group predecessors killed in action and decapitated on the battlefield.[^174] Decapitation of prisoners of war certainly was a later practice in Egypt, as attested in iconography such as the Narmer -palette from the very beginning of the First Dynasty (Figure 9). +palette from the very beginning of the First Dynasty (Figure 9). ![Detail of decapitated corpses on the obverse face of the Narmer palette (Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 32169). Drawing by Henriette Hafsaas.](../static/images/hafsaas/Fig9.jpg "Detail of decapitated corpses on the obverse face of the Narmer palette (Egyptian Museum, Cairo JE 32169). Drawing by Henriette Hafsaas.") @@ -1060,7 +1057,7 @@ after the first clashes. The next process of differentiation between the A-Group and the Naqada peoples is comparable to a schismogenesis, whereby cultural groups define themselves against each other. -# Concluding Remarks on Ethnogenesis and Schismogenesis in Lower Nubia +# Concluding Remarks on Ethnogenesis and Schismogenesis in Lower Nubia In this article, I have argued that two culturally related, but distinctive populations -- the Naqada people and the A-Group @@ -1132,11 +1129,10 @@ ca. 3085 BCE.[^212] **~~Appendix 6: Burials with human remains in Cemetery 45. Osteological case descriptions for individuals with evidence of trauma related to interpersonal violence and missing or broken skulls. Data from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910).~~** - # Acknowledgements This article is an expansion of ideas first presented in my ph.d.-thesis -*War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt* +_War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_ (2015). 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"Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries, Lower Nubia: Towards an Understanding of Exchange Systems between the -Naqada Culture and the A-Group Culture." *The Journal of Egyptian -Archaeology*, 90/1 (2004), pp. 35--62. +Naqada Culture and the A-Group Culture." _The Journal of Egyptian +Archaeology_, 90/1 (2004), pp. 35--62. -Trigger, Bruce G. *History and Settlement in Lower Nubia*. New Haven: +Trigger, Bruce G. _History and Settlement in Lower Nubia_. New Haven: Department of Anthropology, 1965. -Török, László. *Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient -Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - AD 500*. Leiden: Brill, 2009. +Török, László. _Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient +Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC - AD 500_. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Usai, Donatella. "Other Stone Tools: Axes, Mace-heads and Grinding -stones." In *A Neolithic Cemetery in the Northern Dongola Reach -(Sudan): Excavation at Site 12*, edited by Sandro Salvatori and Donatella Usai, pp. 53-58, Oxford: BAR (2008). +stones." In _A Neolithic Cemetery in the Northern Dongola Reach +(Sudan): Excavation at Site 12_, edited by Sandro Salvatori and Donatella Usai, pp. 53-58, Oxford: BAR (2008). Vandkilde, Helle. "Warriors and Warrior Institutions in Copper Age -Europe." In *Warfare and Society. Archaeological and Social -Anthropological Perspectives*, edited by Ton Otto, Henrik Thrane, and +Europe." In _Warfare and Society. Archaeological and Social +Anthropological Perspectives_, edited by Ton Otto, Henrik Thrane, and Helle Vandkilde, pp. 393-422. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2006. Voss, Barbara L. "What's new? Rethinking ethnogenesis in the -archaeology of colonialism." *American Antiquity* 80/4 (2015): pp. 655-670. +archaeology of colonialism." _American Antiquity_ 80/4 (2015): pp. 655-670. Walker, Phillip L. "A Bioarchaeological Perspective on the History of -Violence." *Annual Review of Anthropology* 30 (2001): pp. 573-596. +Violence." _Annual Review of Anthropology_ 30 (2001): pp. 573-596. -Weik, Terrance M. "The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis." *Annual Review of -Anthropology* 43 (2014): pp. 291-305. +Weik, Terrance M. "The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis." _Annual Review of +Anthropology_ 43 (2014): pp. 291-305. Wengrow, David. "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt: Towards a -Prehistoric Perspective on the Narmer Palette." *Cambridge -Archaeological Journal* 11/1 (2001): pp. 91-104. +Prehistoric Perspective on the Narmer Palette." _Cambridge +Archaeological Journal_ 11/1 (2001): pp. 91-104. -Wengrow, David. *The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations -in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC*. Cambridge: Cambridge +Wengrow, David. _The Archaeology of Early Egypt. Social Transformations +in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Wengrow, David and David Graeber. "'Many Seasons Ago': Slavery and Its Rejection among Foragers on the Pacific Coast of North America." -*American Anthropologist* 120/2 (2018): pp. 237-249. +_American Anthropologist_ 120/2 (2018): pp. 237-249. Wengrow, David, Michael Dee, Sarah Foster, Alice Stevenson, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: A Prehistoric Perspective on Egypt's Place in Africa." *Antiquity* 88/339 (2014): pp. 95-111. -Wilkinson, Toby A.H. *Early Dynastic Egypt*. London: Routledge, 1999. +Wilkinson, Toby A.H. _Early Dynastic Egypt_. London: Routledge, 1999. -[^1]: For general discussions of the concept ethnogenesis, see Roosens, - *Creating Ethnicity*, and Weik, "The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis." +[^1]: + For general discussions of the concept ethnogenesis, see Roosens, + _Creating Ethnicity_, and Weik, "The Archaeology of Ethnogenesis." -[^2]: Nordström divided the A-Group into three stages, Early, - Classic/Middle, and Terminal, in his seminal work *Neolithic and - A-Group Sites*, p. 18. +[^2]: + Nordström divided the A-Group into three stages, Early, + Classic/Middle, and Terminal, in his seminal work _Neolithic and + A-Group Sites_, p. 18. [^3]: Voss, "What's new?" p. 656. +[^4]: Bateson, _Naven_. +[^5]: + Wengrow and Graeber, "Many Seasons Ago," p. 238. See also Graeber + and Wengrow, _The Dawn of Everything_, especially Chapter 5. -[^4]: Bateson, *Naven*. - -[^5]: Wengrow and Graeber, "Many Seasons Ago," p. 238. See also Graeber - and Wengrow, *The Dawn of Everything*, especially Chapter 5. - -[^6]: Trigger, *History and Settlement in Lower Nubia*, p. 14. - -[^7]: See Nordström, *Neolithic and A-Group Sites*, p. 19 for a brief +[^6]: Trigger, _History and Settlement in Lower Nubia_, p. 14. +[^7]: + See Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group Sites_, p. 19 for a brief reference to the violent cases noted by Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (see below). -[^8]: Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile +[^8]: + Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," pp. 102-103. [^9]: Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. 431. - -[^10]: Bard, "Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation +[^10]: + Bard, "Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State," p. 6 and p. 12. -[^11]: Bard, "Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation +[^11]: + Bard, "Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State," p. 1; Köhler, "Prehistoric Egypt," p. 144; Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. 451. -[^12]: See Dee et al., "An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt," for +[^12]: + See Dee et al., "An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt," for absolute dates. -[^13]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 123. +[^13]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 123. -[^14]: Nordström, *Neolithic and A-Group sites*; Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy;" Roy, *The Politics of Trade*; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group;" Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia." - -[^15]: See for instance Takamiya, "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in +[^14]: Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group sites_; Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy;" Roy, _The Politics of Trade_; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group;" Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia." +[^15]: + See for instance Takamiya, "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries," p. 56 for the establishment of the contact, and - Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State - of Ancient Egypt*, p. 337. + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State + of Ancient Egypt_, p. 337. -[^16]: Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the +[^16]: + Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 98; Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia," p. 129. -[^17]: Some examples from the last 20 years: Hendrickx, +[^17]: + Some examples from the last 20 years: Hendrickx, "Predynastic---Early Dynastic Chronology," p. 71 and p. 76; Wengrow, - *The Archaeology of Early Egypt*, p. 75; Bard, "Political Economies + _The Archaeology of Early Egypt_, p. 75; Bard, "Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State;" Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia," p. 127 and p. 129. [^18]: Also spelled Kubaniya and Kubaniyeh. - -[^19]: Some examples from the last 20 years: Edwards, *The Nubian past*, +[^19]: + Some examples from the last 20 years: Edwards, _The Nubian past_, pp. 68-69; Nordström, "The Nubian A-Group," p. 134; Takamiya, "Egyptian Pottery Distribution in A-Group Cemeteries," p. 41; Friedman, "The Nubian Cemetery at Hierakonpolis," p. 62; Török, - *Between Two Worlds*, p. 35; Roy, *The Politics of Trade*, p. 49; + _Between Two Worlds_, p. 35; Roy, _The Politics of Trade_, p. 49; Glück, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. 199; Meurer, "Nubians in Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period to the New Kingdom," p. 290). -[^20]: Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian +[^20]: + Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian History," p. 117; Gatto, "The A-Group and 4th Millennium BCE Nubia," p. 130. -[^21]: See also Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern - Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 336. - -[^22]: Earle and Kristiansen, "Organizing Bronze Age Societies," p. - 243. +[^21]: + See also Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern + Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 336. +[^22]: Earle and Kristiansen, "Organizing Bronze Age Societies," p. 243. [^23]: Otto, Thrane, and Vandkilde, "Warfare and Society," pp. 16-17. - -[^24]: Jones, *The Archaeology of Ethnicity*, p. xiii. - +[^24]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. xiii. [^25]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-11. - -[^26]: Barth, "Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analysis of +[^26]: + Barth, "Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analysis of Ethnicity," p. 12; Smith, "Ethnicity," p. 1. [^27]: Barth, "Introduction," pp. 10-11. - -[^28]: E.g., Smith, *Wretched Kush*, p. 14. - -[^29]: Eriksen, *Ethnicity and Nationalism*, p. 12. - -[^30]: Jones, *The Archaeology of Ethnicity*, p. 75 and p. 78. - +[^28]: E.g., Smith, _Wretched Kush_, p. 14. +[^29]: Eriksen, _Ethnicity and Nationalism_, p. 12. +[^30]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. 75 and p. 78. [^31]: Bentley, "Ethnicity and Practice." - -[^32]: Bourdieu, *Outline of a Theory of Practice*, p. 72. - +[^32]: Bourdieu, _Outline of a Theory of Practice_, p. 72. [^33]: Bentley, "Ethnicity and Practice," p. 27. - -[^34]: Jones, *The Archaeology of Ethnicity*, p. 120. - -[^35]: Smith, *Wretched Kush*, pp. 18-19. - +[^34]: Jones, _The Archaeology of Ethnicity_, p. 120. +[^35]: Smith, _Wretched Kush_, pp. 18-19. [^36]: Maceachern, "Scale, Style, and Cultural Variation," p. 123. - [^37]: See Barth, "Introduction," p. 14. - [^38]: Gosselain, "Materializing Identities." - -[^39]: Hodder, *Symbols in Action*, p. 22 and p. 58. - -[^40]: Emberling, "Ethnicity in Complex Societies," p. 318; Manzo, +[^39]: Hodder, _Symbols in Action_, p. 22 and p. 58. +[^40]: + Emberling, "Ethnicity in Complex Societies," p. 318; Manzo, "Clash of Civilization on the First Cataract?" p. 103; Smith, - *Wretched Kush*, p. 31; Stevenson, *The Predynastic Egyptian - Cemetery of el-Gerzeh*, p. 77. + _Wretched Kush_, p. 31; Stevenson, _The Predynastic Egyptian + Cemetery of el-Gerzeh_, p. 77. -[^41]: Smith, *Wretched Kush*, p. 19. +[^41]: Smith, _Wretched Kush_, p. 19. +[^42]: + See Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, Chapters 8-10. -[^42]: See Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, Chapters 8-10. - -[^43]: Nordström, *Neolithic and A-Group Sites*, p. 17. - -[^44]: For a more detailed analysis, see Chapter 8 in Hafsaas-Tsakos, - *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient - Egypt*. See also Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th +[^43]: Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group Sites_, p. 17. +[^44]: + For a more detailed analysis, see Chapter 8 in Hafsaas-Tsakos, + _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient + Egypt_. See also Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th Millennium BCE," p. 132. -[^45]: See Matić, *Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs*, p. - 28. - +[^45]: See Matić, _Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs_, p. 28. [^46]: Smith, "Ethnicity." +[^47]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 253. -[^47]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 253. - -[^48]: Wengrow, "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt," p. 96; +[^48]: + Wengrow, "Rethinking 'Cattle Cults' in Early Egypt," p. 96; Wengrow et al. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 105; Haaland and Haaland, "Early Farming Societies along - the Nile*," p. 548. + the Nile\*," p. 548. -[^49]: Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. - 432. - -[^50]: In the first systematic excavations in northern Lower Nubia, +[^49]: Stevenson, "The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation," p. 432. +[^50]: + In the first systematic excavations in northern Lower Nubia, George Reisner gave the different material assemblages the letters A, B, C, D and E to indicate their relative chronological sequence. The so-called A-Group and C-Group have since been used as the terms for the indigenous populations inhabiting Lower Nubia during the Bronze Age. Junker was the first archaeologist dating the B-Group - graves earlier than the A-Group in *Bericht über die Grabungen der + graves earlier than the A-Group in _Bericht über die Grabungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien auf den Friedhöfen von - El-Kubanieh-Syd*, p. 26. + El-Kubanieh-Syd_, p. 26. [^51]: Smith, "The Nubian B-Group." - -[^52]: Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower +[^52]: + Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower Nubia." -[^53]: E.g., Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian +[^53]: + E.g., Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian History," p. 110; Raue, "Cultural Diversity of Nubia in the Later 3rd--mid 2nd Millennium BC," p. 294. -[^54]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 73. +[^54]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 73. -[^55]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 278. +[^55]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 278. -[^56]: Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower - Nubia," p. 98 and p. 101; Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern - Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt*, table 1. +[^56]: + Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower + Nubia," p. 98 and p. 101; Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern + Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, table 1. -[^57]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 33-42. - -[^58]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 33-45. - -[^59]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 257-259. See also Smith, "The +[^57]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-42. +[^58]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-45. +[^59]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 257-259. See also Smith, "The Development of the A-Group Culture in Northern Lower Nubia," p. 98; - Roy, *The Politics of Trade*, pp. 68-69. + Roy, _The Politics of Trade_, pp. 68-69. -[^60]: See Hendrickx, "Predynastic-Early Dynastic Chronology," table +[^60]: + See Hendrickx, "Predynastic-Early Dynastic Chronology," table II/1.4b. [^61]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-57. - [^62]: Aston, Harrell, and Shaw, "Stone," p. 57. - -[^63]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 33-38. - +[^63]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 33-38. [^64]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 55-56 +[^65]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 141-144. +[^66]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, fig. 77. -[^65]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 141-144. - -[^66]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, fig. 77. - -[^67]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^67]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 257-262. -[^68]: See Nordström, "Gender and Social Structure in the Nubian +[^68]: + See Nordström, "Gender and Social Structure in the Nubian A-Group," for later gender differences among the A-Group people. -[^69]: See Hodgson, "Gender, Culture, and the Myth of the Patriarchal +[^69]: + See Hodgson, "Gender, Culture, and the Myth of the Patriarchal Pastoralist," p. 10 for pastoral labor structured by gender (and age). -[^70]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 142-144. - -[^71]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, fig. 92/1-2. - +[^70]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 142-144. +[^71]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, fig. 92/1-2. [^72]: Usai, "Other Stone Tools," pp. 56-57. - [^73]: Stevenson, "Social Relationships in Predynastic Burials," p. 191. - -[^74]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 142, p. 144, +[^74]: + Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 142, p. 144, and plate 66/b/31 and 33. -[^75]: Wengrow et al. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile +[^75]: + Wengrow et al. "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 103. -[^76]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 113-114. - -[^77]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 269 and p. 285. +[^76]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 113-114. +[^77]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 269 and p. 285. [^78]: See above. +[^79]: + Hafsaas-Tsaoks, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 266-270. -[^79]: Hafsaas-Tsaoks, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 266-270. +[^80]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, table 18. -[^80]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, table 18. +[^81]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 134-135. +[^82]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 133-137. +[^83]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 271-273. -[^81]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 134-135. - -[^82]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 133-137. - -[^83]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 271-273. - -[^84]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 211. - -[^85]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 211-214 and +[^84]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 211. +[^85]: + Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 211-214 and fig. 145. -[^86]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 272. +[^86]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 272. -[^87]: See Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 212-213. +[^87]: See Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-213. +[^88]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 272. -[^88]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 272. - -[^89]: Reisner described these flint implements as flakes. The published +[^89]: + Reisner described these flint implements as flakes. The published photos of other flint flakes identified by Reisner are in fact - blades, see Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, plate + blades, see Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, plate 62/b/1 depicting blades called flakes in the description. -[^90]: See Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of Bronze and Expressions of +[^90]: + See Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Edges of Bronze and Expressions of Masculinity," for a later example of expressions masculine in Nubia. -[^91]: Vandkilde, "Warriors and Warrior Institutions in Copper Age +[^91]: + Vandkilde, "Warriors and Warrior Institutions in Copper Age Europe," p. 405. -[^92]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^92]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 169-173. -[^93]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 258 and pp. +[^93]: + Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 258 and pp. 262-265. -[^94]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, fig. 212/2-5, 12. - -[^95]: Stevenson, *The Predynastic Egyptian Cemetery of el-Gerzeh*, p. - 145. - -[^96]: Nordström, *Neolithic and A-Group Sites*, p. 130. - -[^97]: Wengrow et al., "Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the +[^94]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, fig. 212/2-5, 12. +[^95]: Stevenson, _The Predynastic Egyptian Cemetery of el-Gerzeh_, p. 145. +[^96]: Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group Sites_, p. 130. +[^97]: + Wengrow et al., "Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 105. -[^98]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 316-317. +[^98]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 316-317. -[^99]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, Chapter 9. +[^99]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, Chapter 9. -[^100]: See Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the - Emerging State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 285-294 for more details. +[^100]: + See Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the + Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 285-294 for more details. -[^101]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 285. +[^101]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 285. -[^102]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 291. See also Hårde, "Funerary Rituals +[^102]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 291. See also Hårde, "Funerary Rituals and Warfare in the Early Bronze Age Nitra Culture of Slovakia and Moravia," p. 358, for a similar interpretation. -[^103]: Gilbert, *Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt*, p. 83. - +[^103]: Gilbert, _Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt_, p. 83. [^104]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181 +[^105]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 116. +[^106]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 327-328. -[^105]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 116. - -[^106]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 327-328. - -[^107]: Crevecoeur et al., "New Insights on Interpersonal Violence in +[^107]: + Crevecoeur et al., "New Insights on Interpersonal Violence in the Late Pleistocene Based on the Nile Valley Cemetery of Jebel Sahaba." [^108]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181. - -[^109]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 137-139. - -[^110]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^109]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 137-139. +[^110]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 116-117. [^111]: Friedman, "Hierakonpolis," pp. 38-39. - -[^112]: Droux and Pieri, "Further Adventures at HK6: The 2010 Season," +[^112]: + Droux and Pieri, "Further Adventures at HK6: The 2010 Season," p. 4. [^113]: Friedman, "Hierakonpolis," p. 39. - -[^114]: Gilbert, *Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt*, p. 84. - +[^114]: Gilbert, _Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt_, p. 84. [^115]: Chaix and Reinold, "Animals in Neolithic Graves." - -[^116]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 37-42. - -[^117]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*. - -[^118]: Helbling, "War and Peace in Societies without Central Power," p. - 115. - -[^119]: Judd, "Continuity of Interpersonal Violence between Nubian +[^116]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 37-42. +[^117]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_. +[^118]: Helbling, "War and Peace in Societies without Central Power," p. 115. +[^119]: + Judd, "Continuity of Interpersonal Violence between Nubian Communities," p. 324 with references. [^120]: Judd, "Trauma in the City of Kerma," pp. 46-48. - -[^121]: Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study +[^121]: + Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 121. [^122]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 182. - -[^123]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^123]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 330-332. -[^124]: Filer, "Ancient Egypt and Nubia as a Source of Information for +[^124]: + Filer, "Ancient Egypt and Nubia as a Source of Information for Cranial Injuries," p. 70. -[^125]: Judd, "Trauma in the City of Kerma," p. 46; Judd, "The Parry +[^125]: + Judd, "Trauma in the City of Kerma," p. 46; Judd, "The Parry Problem," p. 1661; Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 121. [^126]: Robinson, "Fractures of the Clavicle in the Adult," table 3. - -[^127]: Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study +[^127]: + Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 124. -[^128]: Blood-stained bones were observed in some well-preserved human - remains, see Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human - Remains*, pp. 329-330. However, stains from decomposed blood are +[^128]: + Blood-stained bones were observed in some well-preserved human + remains, see Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human + Remains_, pp. 329-330. However, stains from decomposed blood are usually absent in violent deaths uncovered from archaeological contexts, see Walker, "A Bioarchaeological Perspective on the History of Violence," p. 578. -[^129]: Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study +[^129]: + Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 124. -[^130]: E.g., Molleson, "The Nubian Pathological Collection;" Filer, +[^130]: + E.g., Molleson, "The Nubian Pathological Collection;" Filer, "Ancient Egypt and Nubia as a Source of Information for Cranial Injuries;" Judd and Redfern, "Trauma," p. 362; Cockitt, et al. "Capturing a Century of Study." -[^131]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^131]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 331-332. -[^132]: See Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the +[^132]: + See Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeological Contributions to the Study of Violence," p. 118. [^133]: Marshall and Buzon, "Bioarchaeology in the Nile Valley." - -[^134]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. +[^134]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 331-332. -[^135]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 313. +[^135]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 313. +[^136]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 259. -[^136]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 259. - -[^137]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 331. - -[^138]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 108. - -[^139]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 312. - -[^140]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 299. - -[^141]: Punjabi et al., "Causes and Management of Zygomatic Bone +[^137]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 331. +[^138]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 108. +[^139]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 312. +[^140]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 299. +[^141]: + Punjabi et al., "Causes and Management of Zygomatic Bone Fractures," p. 36. -[^142]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. +[^142]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 313 and fig. 87. [^143]: Judd, "The Parry Problem," p. 1661. - -[^144]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. +[^144]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 305 and fig. 74. -[^145]: Robinson, "Fractures of the Clavicle in the Adult," p. 476 and +[^145]: + Robinson, "Fractures of the Clavicle in the Adult," p. 476 and table 3. -[^146]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. +[^146]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 306 and fig. 75. -[^147]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, +[^147]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 152. -[^148]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 301. - +[^148]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 301. [^149]: See below. - -[^150]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 334. - -[^151]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 301. - -[^152]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 334. - -[^153]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, p. - 299. - -[^154]: Punjabi et al., "Causes and Management of Zygomatic Bone +[^150]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 334. +[^151]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 301. +[^152]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 334. +[^153]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 299. +[^154]: + Punjabi et al., "Causes and Management of Zygomatic Bone Fractures," p. 36. -[^155]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, +[^155]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, p. 108. -[^156]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 134. +[^156]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 134. +[^157]: Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, pp. 212-214. +[^158]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. + 155-156; Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 213. -[^157]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, pp. 212-214. +[^159]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 274. -[^158]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, pp. - 155-156; Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 213. - -[^159]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 274. - -[^160]: Reisner, *The Archaeological Survey of Nubia*, p. 262 and pp. +[^160]: + Reisner, _The Archaeological Survey of Nubia_, p. 262 and pp. 264-265 -[^161]: Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, *Report on the Human Remains*, +[^161]: + Elliot Smith and Wood Jones, _Report on the Human Remains_, pp. 170-173. -[^162]: Gilbert, *Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt*, pp. +[^162]: + Gilbert, _Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt_, pp. 42-43. [^163]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 182. - [^164]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane." - [^165]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 310 and p. 313. - [^166]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 316. - -[^167]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 279-280. +[^167]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 279-280. [^168]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 313. - -[^169]: Wilkinson, *Early Dynastic Egypt*, p. 266. - -[^170]: Wengrow, *The Archaeology of Early Egypt*, pp. 116-123. - +[^169]: Wilkinson, _Early Dynastic Egypt_, p. 266. +[^170]: Wengrow, _The Archaeology of Early Egypt_, pp. 116-123. [^171]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 327. - -[^172]: Wilkinson, *Early Dynastic Egypt*, p. 266. - +[^172]: Wilkinson, _Early Dynastic Egypt_, p. 266. [^173]: Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 330. - -[^174]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 281. +[^174]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 281. [^175]: Buzon, "Bioarchaeology of Nubia," pp. 1052-1053. - [^176]: Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th Millennia BCE." +[^177]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 332. -[^177]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 332. - -[^178]: See Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian +[^178]: + See Gatto, "Cultural Entanglement at the Dawn of the Egyptian History." -[^179]: Hoffman, Hamrouch, and Allen, "A Model of Urban Development for +[^179]: + Hoffman, Hamrouch, and Allen, "A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region," p. 181; Haaland and Haaland, "Early Farming Societies along the Nile," p. 546. -[^180]: Batey, *Population Dynamics in Predynastic Upper Egypt*, p. 31. - -[^181]: Fahmy, "Missing Plant Macro Remains as Indicators of Plant +[^180]: Batey, _Population Dynamics in Predynastic Upper Egypt_, p. 31. +[^181]: + Fahmy, "Missing Plant Macro Remains as Indicators of Plant Exploitation in Predynastic Egypt." -[^182]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 324. +[^182]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 324. -[^183]: Junker, *Bericht über die Grabungen der Akademie der +[^183]: + Junker, _Bericht über die Grabungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien auf den Friedhöfen von El-Kubanieh-Syd Winter - 1910-1911*. + 1910-1911_. -[^184]: E.g., Nordström, *Neolithic and A-Group Sites*, p. 28; Edwards, - *The Nubian Past*, p. 70; GLÜCK, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. - 209. +[^184]: + E.g., Nordström, _Neolithic and A-Group Sites_, p. 28; Edwards, + _The Nubian Past_, p. 70; GLÜCK, "The Heritage of the A-Group," p. 209. -[^185]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 126 and n. 10. +[^185]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 126 and n. 10. [^186]: See above. +[^187]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 123. -[^187]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 123. - -[^188]: Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th millennia BCE," pp. +[^188]: + Gatto, "Egypt and Nubia in the 5th-4th millennia BCE," pp. 129-130. -[^189]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 324. +[^189]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 324. -[^190]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 325. +[^190]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 325. [^191]: See above. - -[^192]: Hårde, "Funerary Rituals and Warfare in the Early Bronze Age +[^192]: + Hårde, "Funerary Rituals and Warfare in the Early Bronze Age Nitra Culture of Slovakia and Moravia," p. 372. See also Honegger, "The Archers of Kerma," in this volume. [^193]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181. - [^194]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181. - [^195]: Martin and Harrod, "Bioarchaeology and Violence," p. 134. +[^196]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, p. 334. -[^196]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, p. 334. - -[^197]: See also Smith, *Wretched Kush*, p. 16, for a general +[^197]: + See also Smith, _Wretched Kush_, p. 16, for a general observation. [^198]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 181. - [^199]: See Dougherty and Friedman, "Sacred or Mundane," p. 316. - [^200]: McMahon, "State Warfare and Pre-state Violent Conflict," p. 180. - [^201]: Pommerening and Hendrickx, "Kopf und Schädel im Alten Ägypten." - [^202]: See above. - -[^203]: Okumura and Siew, "An Osteological Study of Trophy Heads," p. - 685. - +[^203]: Okumura and Siew, "An Osteological Study of Trophy Heads," p. 685. [^204]: Harrison, "Skull Trophies of the Pacific War." - [^205]: Harrison, "Skull Trophies of the Pacific War," p. 831. - -[^206]: Smith, "Ethnicity: Constructions of Self and Other in Ancient +[^206]: + Smith, "Ethnicity: Constructions of Self and Other in Ancient Egypt," p. 117. -[^207]: Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the +[^207]: + Wengrow et al., "Cultural Convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley," p. 105. -[^208]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, chapter 10. +[^208]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, chapter 10. -[^209]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging - State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. 336-337. +[^209]: + Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging + State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 336-337. [^210]: Hafsaas-Tsakos, "Hierarchy and Heterarchy." - -[^211]: Seidlmayer, "Town and State in the Early Old Kingdom," pp. +[^211]: + Seidlmayer, "Town and State in the Early Old Kingdom," pp. 112-113. -[^212]: Smith, "Nubia and Egypt," p. 259; Edwards, *The Nubian Past*, p. - 73; Török, *Between Two Worlds*, pp. 50-51; Hafsaas-Tsakos, *War on - the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt*, pp. +[^212]: + Smith, "Nubia and Egypt," p. 259; Edwards, _The Nubian Past_, p. + 73; Török, _Between Two Worlds_, pp. 50-51; Hafsaas-Tsakos, _War on + the Southern Frontier of the Emerging State of Ancient Egypt_, pp. 376-381.