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--- ---
title: "A Bioarchaeological Approach to Everyday Life: Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima" title: "A Bioarchaeological Approach to Everyday Life: Squatting Facets at Abu Fatima"
authors: ["schrader.md"] authors: ["schrader.md"]
abstract: This paper offers a bioarchaeological approach to everyday life at Abu Fatim through an examination of squatting facets of the ancient population of Nubia. abstract: Human skeletal remains adapt throughout the life course, thereby recording a lived experience. Bioarchaeologists can interpret skeletal data in light of everyday life, a crucial component to social practice, structure, and transformation. In this article, I examine tibial squatting facets, as an embodied product of repetitive squatting, to elucidate everyday life in Bronze Age Nubia. I use the site of Abu Fatima (2500-1500 BCE, Third Cataract) as a case study. At Abu Fatima, 95% of individuals (20/21) had squatting facets, suggesting the vast majority of the population repetitively engaged in a squatting position throughout their lifecourse. This included men and women of all ages. This is much higher than most other comparative studies on tibial squatting facets. Additionally, I reference previous strontium isotope analysis to speak to whether or not migrants or locals were more likely to squat. Both groups, were squatting with regularity. While we cannot speak to the exact activities that were being done while squatting, this study posits a few suggestions and draws an interesting line of continuity between the daily lives of ancient and modern Nubian populations.
keywords: ["bioarchaeology", "everyday life", "Nubia", "squatting"] keywords: ["osteoarchaeology", "skeletal", "Nubia", "Sudan", "Middle Nile"]
--- ---
@ -254,25 +254,25 @@ Table 2. Frequency of Squatting Facets in Other Populations
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| Population | Squatting Facet Presence | Sample Size | Citation | | Population | Squatting Facet Presence | Sample Size | Citation |
| Abu Fatima | 95% | 21| Present study | | Abu Fatima | 95% | 21| Present study |
| Ancient Egypt | 96% | 300 | Satinoff [^25] | | Ancient Egypt | 96% | 300 | Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia in Ancient Egyptians" |
| Ancient Egypt | 33% | 3 | Thomson et al. [^26] | | Ancient Egypt | 33% | 3 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes” |
| Byzantine (13th century CE) | 48% | 100 | Ari et al. [^27] | | Byzantine (13th century CE) | 48% | 100 | Ari et al., “The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of Byzantine (13th) Skeletons" |
| Late Stone Age (1st millennium BCE), South Africa | 50% | 56 | Dlamini and Morris [^28] | | Late Stone Age (1st millennium BCE), South Africa | 50% | 56 | Dlamini and Morris, “An Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa" |
| Early farming (5th-19th centuries CE), South Africa | 77% | 17 | Dlamini and Morris [^29] | | Early farming (5th-19th centuries CE), South Africa | 77% | 17 | Dlamini and Morris, “An Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa" |
| 18th century Cape Town | 5% | 21 | Dlamini and Morris [^30] | | 18th century Cape Town | 5% | 21 | Dlamini and Morris, “An Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa"] |
| 20th century Cape Town cadavers | 0% | 29 | Dlamini and Morris [^31] | | 20th century Cape Town cadavers | 0% | 29 | Dlamini and Morris, “An Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa" |
| South African (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 27% | 11 | Thomson [^32] | | South African (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 27% | 11 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Neanderthals (Europe, Near East) | 91% | 11 | Trinkaus [^33] | | Neanderthals (Europe, Near East) | 91% | 11 | Trinkaus, “Squatting among the Neandertals: A Problem in the Behavioral Interpretation of Skeletal Morphology" |
| European (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 13% | 40 | Thomson [^34] | | European (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 13% | 40 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes"] |
| Scottish (Anatomical Department, University of Edinburgh) | 17% | 118 | Wood [^35] | | Scottish (Anatomical Department, University of Edinburgh) | 17% | 118 | Wood, “The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine" |
| Asian (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 48% | 23 | Thomson [^36] | | Asian (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 48% | 23 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Native American (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 37% | 19 | Thomson [^37] | | Native American (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 37% | 19 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Polynesia (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 75% | 4 | Thomson [^38] | | Polynesia (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 75% | 4 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Melanesia (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 71% | 38 | Thomson [^39] | | Melanesia (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 71% | 38 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Australian (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 79% | 14 | Thomson [^40] | | Australian (Oxford/Royal College of Surgeons' Museum) | 79% | 14 | Thomson et al., “The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes" |
| Australian (Collection of Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh) | 81% | 236 | Wood [^41] | | Australian (Collection of Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh) | 81% | 236 | Wood, “The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine" |
| Indian (20th century) cadavers and "museum specimens" | 77% | 292 | Singh [^42] | | Indian (20th century) cadavers and "museum specimens" | 77% | 292 | Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians" |
| Panjabi, Indian | 87% | 52 | Charles [^43] | | Panjabi, Indian | 87% | 52 | Charles, “The Influence of Function, as Exemplified in the Morphology of the Lower Extremity of the Panjabi" |
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<br/> <br/>
@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ position.
It is also interesting to note that previous bioarchaeological research It is also interesting to note that previous bioarchaeological research
of the Abu Fatima collection indicates that approximately 25% of this of the Abu Fatima collection indicates that approximately 25% of this
population were of non-local origin, meaning they migrated from population were of non-local origin, meaning they migrated from
someplace else and eventually died and were buried at Abu Fatima.[^44] someplace else and eventually died and were buried at Abu Fatima.[^25]
This was assessed via strontium isotope analysis, which compares This was assessed via strontium isotope analysis, which compares
strontium values from dental enamel (produced during childhood) to local strontium values from dental enamel (produced during childhood) to local
geology; if these values are similar, we can deduce that the individual geology; if these values are similar, we can deduce that the individual
@ -348,19 +348,19 @@ In other squatting facet studies, bioarchaeologists have concluded that
individuals with squatting facets may have regularly participated in individuals with squatting facets may have regularly participated in
grinding, basketmaking, spinning, weaving, baking, milking animals, grinding, basketmaking, spinning, weaving, baking, milking animals,
preparing dung, knitting rugs, sitting around a fire, and working in the preparing dung, knitting rugs, sitting around a fire, and working in the
fields.[^45] There is also some evidence within Egypt to suggest that fields.[^26] There is also some evidence within Egypt to suggest that
scribes may have frequently taken a squatting position.[^46] scribes may have frequently taken a squatting position.[^27]
Archaeological evidence in Nubia indicates that percussion instruments Archaeological evidence in Nubia indicates that percussion instruments
were used in a squatting position.[^47] Lastly, there are many were used in a squatting position.[^28] Lastly, there are many
iconographic examples from Ancient Egypt of women given birth in a iconographic examples from Ancient Egypt of women given birth in a
squatting position.[^48] However, for the skeleton to modify it would squatting position.[^29] However, for the skeleton to modify it would
need to be a highly repetitive behavior. It's certainly possible that need to be a highly repetitive behavior. It's certainly possible that
childbirth contributed to the development of squatting facets, it was childbirth contributed to the development of squatting facets, it was
probably in combination with other activities. probably in combination with other activities.
![Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).](../static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg "Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).") ![Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10) https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275 (last accessed November 27, 2024).](../static/images/schrader/Fig4.jpg "Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10) https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275 (last accessed November 27, 2024).")
**~~Figure 4. Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10: https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275).~~** **~~Figure 4. Statuette of Squatting Man (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6; Image ©National Museums Scotland A.1954.10) https://www.nms.ac.uk/search-our-collections/collection-search-results?entry=300275 (last accessed November 27, 2024).~~**
![Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).](../static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg "Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).") ![Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).](../static/images/schrader/Fig5.jpg "Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).")
@ -368,7 +368,7 @@ probably in combination with other activities.
**~~Figure 5. Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).~~** **~~Figure 5. Statuette of Woman Grinding Grain (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5 Image © Boston Museum of Fine Arts 21.2601: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/144023).~~**
Satinoff conducted a study of squatting facets in an Egyptian Satinoff conducted a study of squatting facets in an Egyptian
sample.[^49] The origins of the skeletal material remain unclear as the sample.[^30] The origins of the skeletal material remain unclear as the
only documentation provided is that they were housed at the Institute of only documentation provided is that they were housed at the Institute of
Anthropology at the University of Turin; however, no chronological or Anthropology at the University of Turin; however, no chronological or
spatial information was provided. Satinoff found that of the 300 male spatial information was provided. Satinoff found that of the 300 male
@ -405,10 +405,9 @@ chatting with friends.
# Acknowledgements # Acknowledgements
My thoughts are with the people of Sudan as the country, at the time of My thoughts are with the people of Sudan as the country, at the time of writing, is in the midst of a horrific war.
writing, is in the midst of a horrific war. This publication is part of I would like to thank my collaborator and co-director of the Abu Fatima project, Dr. Stuart Tyson Smith for his continued support.
the project Embodied Inequality (VI.Vidi.201.153) of the Research This publication is part of the project Embodied Inequality (VI.Vidi.201.153) of the Research Programme VIDI which is financed by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).
Programme VIDI which is financed by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).
# References # References
@ -662,69 +661,19 @@ Wood, W.Q. "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine." *Journal of Anatomy*
[^24]: Schrader et al., "Decolonizing Bioarchaeology in Sudan." [^24]: Schrader et al., "Decolonizing Bioarchaeology in Sudan."
[^25]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia [^25]: Schrader et al., "Intraregional 87Sr/86Sr Variation in Nubia."
in Ancient Egyptians."
[^26]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of [^26]: Baykara et al., "Squatting Facet"; Dlamini and Morris, "An
the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
[^27]: Ari, Oygucu, and Sendemir, "The Squatting Facets on the Tibia of
Byzantine (13th) Skeletons."
[^28]: Dlamini and Morris, "An Investigation of the Frequency of
Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Foragers from South Africa."
[^29]: Dlamini and Morris.
[^30]: Ibid.
[^31]: Ibid.
[^32]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
[^33]: Trinkaus, "Squatting among the Neandertals."
[^34]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
[^35]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine."
[^36]: Thomson, Oxon, and Edin, "The Influence of Posture on the Form of
the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different
Races of Man and the Higher Apes."
[^37]: Ibid.
[^38]: Ibid.
[^39]: Ibid.
[^40]: Ibid.
[^41]: Wood, "The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine."
[^42]: Singh, "Squatting Facets on the Talus and Tibia in Indians."
[^43]: Charles, "The Influence of Function, as Exemplified in the
Morphology of the Lower Extremity of the Panjabi."
[^44]: Schrader et al., "Intraregional 87Sr/86Sr Variation in Nubia."
[^45]: Baykara et al., "Squatting Facet"; Dlamini and Morris, "An
Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age Investigation of the Frequency of Suatting Facets in Later Stone Age
Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins Foragers from South Africa"; Molleson, "Bones of Work at the Origins
of Labour." of Labour."
[^46]: Casson, *Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt*. [^27]: Casson, *Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt*.
[^47]: Kleinitz, "Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley." [^28]: Kleinitz, "Soundscapes of the Nubian Nile Valley."
[^48]: Haimov-Kochman, Sciaky-Tamir, and Hurwitz, "Reproduction Concepts [^29]: Haimov-Kochman, Sciaky-Tamir, and Hurwitz, "Reproduction Concepts
and Practices in Ancient Egypt Mirrored by Modern Medicine." and Practices in Ancient Egypt Mirrored by Modern Medicine."
[^49]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia [^30]: Satinoff, "Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia
in Ancient Egyptians." in Ancient Egyptians."

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@ -5,4 +5,4 @@ affiliation: Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University
# Biography # Biography
Sarah Schrader is a bioarchaeologist. Sarah Schrader is an Associate Professor at Leiden University and is head of the Laboratory for Human Osteoarchaeology. Sarah, in collaboration with co-director Dr. Stuart Tyson Smith, has been excavating the Abu Fatima cemetery since 2015.