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@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
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title: "The Archers of Kerma: Warrior Image and Birth of a State"
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authors: ["matthieuhonegger.md"]
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abstract: "A research programme conducted by the Swiss archaeological mission in
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the oldest sectors of the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma has uncovered
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several dozen archers' tombs. The appearance of these armed warriors
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the oldest sectors of the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma has uncovered the tombs of
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several dozen archers. The appearance of these armed warriors
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dating from ca. 2300 BC onwards can be put in parallel with the
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resumption of commercial activities between Egypt and Nubia, illustrated
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by the Harkhuf expeditions. The archers and their warrior attributes
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probably participate in the emergence of kingship ca. 2000 BC, which
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takes control of the commercial axis along the Nile and is illustrated
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by the accumulation of wealth and the development of servitude. This
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article proposes to describe these Kerma archers, and then to look at
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article proposes to describe these Kerma archers and then to look at
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the evolution of funerary rites that show in their own way how a social
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hierarchy emerges that will lead to the birth of a state, in this
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instance the kingdom of Kerma."
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@ -21,22 +21,22 @@ keywords: ["archers", "warriors", "Kerma", "kingdom", "social stratification"]
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It is known that at the time of the Egyptian Kingdom, Nubia represented
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a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1st to the
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5th cataract. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are
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depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae or engraved
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rocks, on bas-reliefs or painted tomb walls. As early as the Old
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Kingdom, they were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and
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probably formed troops, as shown in the model representing them in the
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5th Cataracts. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are
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depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae, engraved
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rocks, bas-reliefs and painted tomb walls. As early as the Old
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Kingdom, archers were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and
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probably formed troops, as shown by the model representing them in the
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tomb of Prince Mesheti (11th Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is
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itself designated from the beginning of the 3rd millennium by a
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hieroglyph in the shape of a bow, *Ta-Sety*, which means the land of the
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bow. Despite this evidence of the importance of these warriors and their
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weapons, archaeological finds of Nubian archers\' tombs contemporary
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weapons, archaeological attestations of tomns of Nubian archers contemporary
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with the Egyptian Kingdom are anecdotal. Only a few tombs from the Kerma
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period (2550-1480 BC) have been reported by Charles Bonnet in his
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excavation reports on the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma.[^1] His most
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important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of an naturally
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important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of a naturally
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mummified archer (Fig. 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase
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(2300-2150 BC), this grave contained the body of a young man, whose head
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(2300-2150 BC), the same tomb contained the body of a young man, whose head
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had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow
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remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows
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was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
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@ -45,8 +45,8 @@ was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
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**~~Figure 1. Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)~~**
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The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the
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abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as for the numerous
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traumas present on its skeletons.[^5] These observations led to the
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abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as the abundant evidence
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of trauma found on the skeletons there.[^5] These observations led to the
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view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of
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violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final
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phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known
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@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ been systematically excavated, taking into account information on the
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surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post
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holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of
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the pits. Knowing that more than 99% of the graves dating from this
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period of the necropolis\'s utilisation were subsequently looted, the
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period of the necropolis\' utilisation were subsequently looted, the
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infill of the pits is often the only way to get an idea of the contents
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of the tomb and of the ceramics placed on the surface beside the mound.
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@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ this makes it possible to distinguish five successive phases between
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(Fig. 3).[^8] We thus have a relatively precise chronological framework
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which highlights five distinct phases of relatively short duration from
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the beginning of Early Kerma to the Middle Kerma. Regarding the spatial
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analysis, the first observable tendency during this evolution appears to
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analysis, the first observed tendency during this evolution appears to
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be the progressive increase in the size of the graves' pits. These are
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small and rectangular during *Kerma ancien 0* (average surface of 0.9
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m^2^), becoming oval and only marginally larger during *Kerma ancien I*
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@ -106,13 +106,13 @@ quadrangular than circular (average surface of 5 m^2^). Then, in *Kerma
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moyen I* appeared the first royal graves with a diameter ranging between
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7 to 10 metres.
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In the oldest sectors (*Kerma ancien 0* and *I*), the tombs are all of
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In the oldest sectors (*Kerma ancien 0* and *I*) the tombs are all of
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equal size and their contents do not give the image of strong social
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distinction. As is the rule in the Kerma period, the bodies are laid on
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their right side, head towards the east. The objects found in the tombs
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are not very abundant, metal (gold, copper alloy) is very rare. As
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regards pottery, there is a marked presence of C-Group pots, which will
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become more discrete over time.[^9]
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are not very abundant and metal (gold, copper alloy) is very rare. With
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regards to pottery, there is a marked presence of C-Group pots, which
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becomes more discrete over time.[^9]
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The *Kerma ancien II* phase shows spectacular changes in the funerary
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rites, compared to the earlier phases in the cemetery. The tombs are
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@ -134,8 +134,8 @@ systematically endowed with a bow.[^10]
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During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in
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the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed
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that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). The
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four youngest individuals with a bow are less than 4 years old, and the
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one in Figure 5 has a bow that is too large for his size. This
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four youngest individuals with a bow are less than 4 years old and the
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one in Figure 5 has a bow that is too large for his age. This
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observation and their age -- less than two years for two of them --
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shows that these bows are not necessarily placed in tombs to express the
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activity of the deceased, but also have a symbolic connotation related
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@ -143,43 +143,42 @@ to male status. The richest graves sometimes distinguish themselves in a
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more spectacular manner. One of them had 50 aligned bucrania to the
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south and 38 decorated pots on the surface. It is at the beginning of
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Middle Kerma (*Kerma moyen I*) that the first royal graves appeared,
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like that recently discovered in Sector 31, whose diameter exceeds 10
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metres, and which has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the
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tumulus.[^11]
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like that recently discovered in Sector 31 of which the diameter exceeds 10
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metres and has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the tumulus.[^11]
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**~~Figure 5. Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.~~**
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Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and, for this
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period, it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in
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diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society
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Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and for this
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period it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in
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diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society,
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which would culminate at the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. The central
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inhumations in the largest tumuli are supposed to be the graves of the
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rulers, the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to
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free men and women.[^12] In certain instances, a mud-brick chapel was
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rulers; the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to
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free men and women.[^12] In certain instances a mud-brick chapel was
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erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13]
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**~~Figure 6. Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).~~**
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During Classic Kerma, the diameter of the largest graves is between 30
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During Classic Kerma the diameter of the largest graves is between 30
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and 90 meters. The three most famous ones were built to a
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uniform size with tumuli approximately 90 meters in diameter (KIII, IV,
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X). Composed of a complex internal structure of mud-brick walls with a
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corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, they are assumed to
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belong to the most powerful rulers of Kerma[^14] (Kendall 1997). The
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corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, these tumuli are assumed to
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belong to the most powerful rulers of Kerma[^14]. The
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grave goods found in these burials and in some subsidiary ones were
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particularly elaborate and the proportion of Egyptian imports high.[^15]
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Two monumental funerary temples (KI, KXI) were erected north-west of the
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tumuli KIII and KX. The Eastern Cemetery was abandoned as a location for
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royal burials during the conquest of Kush by the Egyptians of the 18th
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Dynasty, about 1500 BC. A last royal grave was erected 4 km to the west,
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south of the ancient town of Kerma, and dates about 1480 BC.[^16]
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south of the ancient town of Kerma and dates about 1480 BC.[^16]
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# The archers' graves
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From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Fig.
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3), all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped
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3) all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped
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with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too
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looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as
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the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is
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@ -195,12 +194,12 @@ without looking at the previous excavations of Reisner and Bonnet.
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**~~Figure 7. Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.~~**
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The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was
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excavated in 1915 by Reisner, then in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp
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excavated in 1915 by Reisner and in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp
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(135 graves). The documentation published after the death of
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Reisner,[^18] is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery
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Reisner[^18] is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery,
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corresponding to Classic Kerma and excavated in 1913-1914.[^19] The
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tombs excavated by Kemp have not been spatially located. Nevertheless,
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we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers *Kerma
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we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers the *Kerma
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ancien III* and *Kerma moyen I* phases. The documentation identifies the
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grave of a woman with a staff, but there is no evidence of bows. In view
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of the discreet nature of the evidence for archery, we believe that it
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@ -208,18 +207,17 @@ has simply not been identified. It must be said that the tombs were
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systematically excavated by Egyptians from the village of Kouft,
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assisted by Nubians. It is therefore very likely that they simply did
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not observe these fleeting remains. In the "Cemetery M" (Middle Kerma,
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see fig. 3) which dates of Middle Kerma, the documentation, published
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with that of the "Cemetery N" is not better than this latter. No archer
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or bow was identified. It is only in Classic Kerma that this practice
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seems to disappear, according to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is
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of much better quality than that published by Dunham.[^21] It must be
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said that this part of the cemetery is different from that of Early and
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Middle Kerma. Our demographic estimate for the Eastern Cemetery
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concludes that there were at least 36,000 individuals buried, but the
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part attributed to Classic Kerma yields only 700. Simulations of burial
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recruitment show that this part of the cemetery is the most selective
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and contains only a small section of the ruling class, in contrast to
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earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by
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see fig. 3), the documentation, published with that of the "Cemetery N",
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is not better than the latter. No archer or bow was identified. It is
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only in Classic Kerma that this practice seems to disappear, according
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to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is of much better quality than
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that published by Dunham.[^21] It must be said that this part of the
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cemetery is different from that of Early and Middle Kerma. Our demographic
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estimate for the Eastern Cemetery suggests at least 36,000 buried individuals,
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but those attributed to Classic Kerma envelops only 700 individuals.
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Simulations of burial recruitment show that this part of the cemetery
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is the most selective and contains only a small section of the ruling class,
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in contrast to earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by
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daggers, which led Hafsaas to conclude that there was a warrior
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elite displaying this type of weapon, as was the case in Europe in the
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Late Bronze and Iron Ages.[^22]
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@ -231,7 +229,7 @@ remains as bow stings. Nevertheless, Bonnet reports the presence of some
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archers in Early Kerma sectors, as well as in Middle Kerma sectors. The
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famous mummy of an archer (Fig. 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma
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ancien II*) and five other graves of archers were excavated in Sector 23
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(Kerma (*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers
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(*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers
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were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as
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well as another in sector 20 (*Kerma moyen IV*).[^25] Finally, we had
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the opportunity to excavate a grave in sector 24 (*Kerma moyen V*) which
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@ -266,18 +264,18 @@ leads one to believe that it was strung when placed in the tomb. The bow
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is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is
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occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity
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(Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used
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to manufacture the bows, since these had been too severely damaged by
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to manufacture the bows since these had been too severely damaged by
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termites.
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**~~Figure 9. Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).~~**
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\- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, are similar
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\- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, similar
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to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6th to 12th
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Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The
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arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint
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(Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of
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fitting defined by Clark et al.,[^32] with one placed at the tip of the
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fitting defined by Clark et al.[^32] with one lunate placed at the tip of the
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arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been
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inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed
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directly in the archer\'s left hand.
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@ -288,7 +286,7 @@ directly in the archer\'s left hand.
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\- A goat-skin leather quiver. Its presence in the tombs is not
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systematic, but we have been able to identify seven more or less
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complete ones. They are sewn, some wide and rather short, while others
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are slenderer, like the example in Figure 11.
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are more slender, like the example in Figure 11.
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**~~Figure 11. Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
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@ -297,7 +295,7 @@ are slenderer, like the example in Figure 11.
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typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few
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cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are
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always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two
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concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known in
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concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known from
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Egypt in the mass grave of soldiers found at Deir el-Bahari of the 12th
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Dynasty.[^33] This type of wrist-guard is unusual in Egypt and some
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authors considered it to have come from the north, but it probably
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@ -306,7 +304,7 @@ belongs to Nubian archers originally attached to the Kerma culture.[^34]
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**~~Figure 12. Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).~~**
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**~~Figure 13. Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
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@ -330,13 +328,13 @@ has its wool, which can be dark brown, beige, or quite frequently
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bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). This
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bicoloured fur, which bears witness to a selection process resulting
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from advanced domestication,[^36] could be a form of imitation of the
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coat of leopards, such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we
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coat of leopards such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we
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never found a leopard-skin loincloth during our excavations in the
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Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were
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naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from
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Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract (Fig. 17), where a series of six archers
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Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract where a series of six archers
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wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very
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close to that observed at Kerma;[^37] among this group, only one archer
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close to that observed at Kerma (Fig. 17);[^37] among this group, only one archer
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is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not
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have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the
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headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband
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@ -355,24 +353,24 @@ attach a feather.[^38]
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# Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state
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At Kerma, men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their
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archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards, and this continues for
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several centuries, probably until the end of the Middle Kerma about 1750
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At Kerma men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their
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archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards and this continues for
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several centuries, probably until the end of Middle Kerma about 1750
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BC. Clearly, there is a symbolic dimension to this display, underscored
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by the fact that even children as young as 1.5 years old are equipped
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by the fact that even children as young as 1,5 years old are equipped
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with bows. Moreover, researchers have repeatedly pointed out that there
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are numerous instances of evidence for violence in the Classic Kerma
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part of the cemetery,[^39] and the anthropologist working on the
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skeletons of Early Kerma has also noted the abundance of such evidence,
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especially on young men.[^40] It must therefore be admitted that the
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presence of archers cannot only be symbolic and that it also reflects
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the status of these warriors, who were perhaps trained in the handling
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the status of these warriors who were perhaps trained in the handling
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of the bow from a very young age. As reported by the Egyptians, this
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weapon was of major importance in Nubia and at the time of Early Kerma,
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the hundreds of excavated tombs did not reveal many other kinds of
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weapons. Mace heads are exceptional in this period, and we found only
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one in 409 excavated tombs. The spears must have been made of wood or
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composite material. We found a long point manufactured from a mammal
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weapons. Mace heads are exceptional in this period and we found only
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one in 409 excavated tombs. Spears must have been made of wood or
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composite material as we found a long point manufactured from a mammal
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long bone that could have been the apex of a spear. As for copper alloy
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daggers, they only appear at the end of Early Kerma and become more
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numerous during Middle Kerma, becoming more elongated, to finally be
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@ -391,30 +389,30 @@ for the hundreds or even thousands of bucrania deposited to the south of
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the tumulus, but also for the quantity of fine ceramics laid out inside
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the pit and around the tumulus. Other criteria, such as the animal and
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human sacrifices -- which some prefer to call accompanying deaths --
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also underline the status of the individuals, insofar as their number is
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also underline the status of the individuals insofar as their number is
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proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of
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||||
Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of the exchanges (Fig.
|
||||
Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of exchanges (Fig.
|
||||
18).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
**~~Figure 18. Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).~~**
|
||||
|
||||
During the first phase of the Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are
|
||||
already significant, and it is possible that the presence of several
|
||||
already significant and it is possible that the presence of several
|
||||
C-Group features is evidence of important contacts between Upper and
|
||||
Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase, exchanges decline, a sign of a
|
||||
certain loss of Egyptian control over Lower Nubia, as has already been
|
||||
Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase exchanges decline, a sign of a
|
||||
certain loss of Egyptian control over Lower Nubia as has already been
|
||||
pointed out.[^43] It is during the *Kerma ancien II* phase (2300-2150
|
||||
BC) that imports increase again. It is also from this time onwards that
|
||||
the archers\' tombs appear, that the distinctions between the tombs
|
||||
start to be significant, and that the wealth becomes more important,
|
||||
notably through the presence of Egyptian copper alloy mirrors which will
|
||||
attract the interest of the looters.
|
||||
start to be significant, and that wealth becomes more important,
|
||||
notably through the presence of Egyptian copper alloy mirrors, which
|
||||
tend to attract the interest of looters.
|
||||
|
||||
It is precisely during this phase that Egyptian sources mention the
|
||||
famous expeditions of Harkhuf,[^44] a high dignitary of Aswan. His tomb,
|
||||
famous expeditions of Harkhuf,[^44] a high dignitary from Aswan. His tomb,
|
||||
covered with inscriptions, relates the story of his three journeys to
|
||||
Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II, around 2250
|
||||
Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II around 2250
|
||||
BC. These were obviously expeditions aimed at reopening trade routes by
|
||||
making contact and trading with the Nubian populations located south of
|
||||
the 2nd cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations
|
||||
|
|
@ -423,25 +421,24 @@ relations between them[^46]. These groups are already hierarchical with
|
|||
dominant personalities capable of gathering armed men in quantity,
|
||||
goods, and donkeys by the dozen, to accompany Harkhuf and his escort. It
|
||||
is likely that Kerma then developed a coercive policy to ensure the
|
||||
control of the lucrative trade with the Egyptians, in an atmosphere of
|
||||
control of the lucrative trade with the Egyptians in an atmosphere of
|
||||
conflicts between tribes or lineages. The valorisation of the role of
|
||||
warriors in funeral rites could be a consequence of this.
|
||||
|
||||
From this point onwards, the indications of a more marked social
|
||||
stratification increase rapidly with an increase in imports, in the
|
||||
number of human sacrifices, in the number of bucrania in front of the
|
||||
largest tombs, as well as in the number of red fine ware with black
|
||||
rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18). One can imagine a
|
||||
competition between dominant lineages, as we have suggested in an
|
||||
analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their
|
||||
decorations[^47]. This competition will lead to the emergence of a
|
||||
dominant lineage that will concentrate the wealth and show it in the
|
||||
funeral rites, as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear
|
||||
around 2000 BC (Fig. 19). It is from this period onwards that the
|
||||
necropolis will undergo a spectacular development, much more important
|
||||
demographically than natural population growth could allow. Kerma must
|
||||
therefore have been the centre of the kingdom from this period onwards
|
||||
and attracted populations from its kingdom to settle in the region.
|
||||
From this point onwards, indications of a more marked social
|
||||
stratification rapidly increase alongside a growth of imports,
|
||||
human sacrifices, bucrania in front of the largest tombs, as well as
|
||||
red fine ware with black rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18).
|
||||
One can imagine a competition between dominant lineages, as we have
|
||||
suggested in an analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their
|
||||
decorations[^47]. This competition would have lead to the emergence of a
|
||||
dominant lineage that concentrated wealth and showed it in funeral rites,
|
||||
as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear around 2000 BC (Fig. 19).
|
||||
It is from this period onwards that the necropolis will undergo a spectacular
|
||||
development, much more important demographically than natural population
|
||||
growth could allow. Kerma must therefore have been the centre of the
|
||||
kingdom from this period onwards and attracted populations from its
|
||||
kingdom to settle in the region.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
**~~Figure 19. View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.~~**
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ keywords: ["Acropole Hotel", "Khartoum", "Greeks in Sudan", "George Pagoulatos"]
|
|||
|
||||
The year 2022 marks a jubilee for Nubian studies. Fifty years ago, the
|
||||
International Society for Nubian Studies (ISNS) was founded during the
|
||||
first International Conference for Nubian Studies (ICNS). As then, this
|
||||
first International Conference for Nubian Studies (ICNS). Like then, this
|
||||
year's ICNS took place in Warsaw, the headquarters of the study of---at
|
||||
least---medieval, or Christian, Nubia. For the ISNS, the jubilee was
|
||||
also, in many ways, a year of reflection on the deeds of the past and
|
||||
|
|
@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ formalities and kindness. He introduced me to many archaeologists
|
|||
staying at the Acropole who were willing to share their experiences with
|
||||
a novice in the field. I recall how he managed to relieve my stress with
|
||||
his kind words and mindful observations during a dinner he planned with
|
||||
professors returning from Kerma, the mythical to me capital of Bronze
|
||||
professors returning from Kerma, the (mythical to me) capital of Bronze
|
||||
Age Sudan; how, when I moved to Sudan, he invited me to the Acropole
|
||||
time and again to meet colleagues who had an interest in or questions
|
||||
about Greco-Roman topics to which I could provide some feedback. It is
|
||||
|
|
@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ of the Samandalyat, a group of eleven Sudanese women playing the violin
|
|||
under the guidance of Professor Leila Pastawi on the keyboard
|
||||
instrument. When the group performed at the premises of "Ergamenis," he
|
||||
also showed his generosity and humbleness by offering and serving
|
||||
himself drinks to more than a hundred people at the concert's
|
||||
drinks himself to more than a hundred people at the concert's
|
||||
intermission, always with a smile for everyone.
|
||||
|
||||
The early 2000s, when I was living in Sudan, were perhaps some of the
|
||||
|
|
@ -145,8 +145,8 @@ most prosperous years for the country thanks not only to the discovery
|
|||
of oil but also to the constant flow of money that supported the work of
|
||||
the numerous NGOs present in the country due to the humanitarian crises
|
||||
in all the peripheries controlled by Khartoum. The country felt somewhat
|
||||
more open to foreigners, and tourists started coming in larger numbers.
|
||||
The Acropole Hotel became a hub for this type of visitors too, and
|
||||
more open to foreigners and tourists started coming in larger numbers.
|
||||
The Acropole Hotel became a hub for this type of visitors too and
|
||||
George's name was known to all involved in the tourism industry.
|
||||
However, whenever one praised him for his services, efficiency, and
|
||||
warmth, he always replied on behalf of the entire family---brothers,
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
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Add table
Reference in a new issue