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@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
title: "The Archers of Kerma: Warrior Image and Birth of a State" title: "The Archers of Kerma: Warrior Image and Birth of a State"
authors: ["matthieuhonegger.md"] authors: ["matthieuhonegger.md"]
abstract: "A research programme conducted by the Swiss archaeological mission in abstract: "A research programme conducted by the Swiss archaeological mission in
the oldest sectors of the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma has uncovered the oldest sectors of the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma has uncovered the tombs of
several dozen archers' tombs. The appearance of these armed warriors several dozen archers. The appearance of these armed warriors
dating from ca. 2300 BC onwards can be put in parallel with the dating from ca. 2300 BC onwards can be put in parallel with the
resumption of commercial activities between Egypt and Nubia, illustrated resumption of commercial activities between Egypt and Nubia, illustrated
by the Harkhuf expeditions. The archers and their warrior attributes by the Harkhuf expeditions. The archers and their warrior attributes
probably participate in the emergence of kingship ca. 2000 BC, which probably participate in the emergence of kingship ca. 2000 BC, which
takes control of the commercial axis along the Nile and is illustrated takes control of the commercial axis along the Nile and is illustrated
by the accumulation of wealth and the development of servitude. This by the accumulation of wealth and the development of servitude. This
article proposes to describe these Kerma archers, and then to look at article proposes to describe these Kerma archers and then to look at
the evolution of funerary rites that show in their own way how a social the evolution of funerary rites that show in their own way how a social
hierarchy emerges that will lead to the birth of a state, in this hierarchy emerges that will lead to the birth of a state, in this
instance the kingdom of Kerma." instance the kingdom of Kerma."
@ -21,22 +21,22 @@ keywords: ["archers", "warriors", "Kerma", "kingdom", "social stratification"]
It is known that at the time of the Egyptian Kingdom, Nubia represented It is known that at the time of the Egyptian Kingdom, Nubia represented
a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1st to the a neighbouring and often rival entity, extending from the 1st to the
5th cataract. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are 5th Cataracts. Its renowned warriors are represented by archers and are
depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae or engraved depicted on numerous occasions in the Nile valley, on stelae, engraved
rocks, on bas-reliefs or painted tomb walls. As early as the Old rocks, bas-reliefs and painted tomb walls. As early as the Old
Kingdom, they were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and Kingdom, archers were enrolled in the Egyptian armies as mercenaries and
probably formed troops, as shown in the model representing them in the probably formed troops, as shown by the model representing them in the
tomb of Prince Mesheti (11th Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is tomb of Prince Mesheti (11th Dynasty). The territory of Nubia is
itself designated from the beginning of the 3rd millennium by a itself designated from the beginning of the 3rd millennium by a
hieroglyph in the shape of a bow, *Ta-Sety*, which means the land of the hieroglyph in the shape of a bow, *Ta-Sety*, which means the land of the
bow. Despite this evidence of the importance of these warriors and their bow. Despite this evidence of the importance of these warriors and their
weapons, archaeological finds of Nubian archers\' tombs contemporary weapons, archaeological attestations of tomns of Nubian archers contemporary
with the Egyptian Kingdom are anecdotal. Only a few tombs from the Kerma with the Egyptian Kingdom are anecdotal. Only a few tombs from the Kerma
period (2550-1480 BC) have been reported by Charles Bonnet in his period (2550-1480 BC) have been reported by Charles Bonnet in his
excavation reports on the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma.[^1] His most excavation reports on the Eastern Cemetery of Kerma.[^1] His most
important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of an naturally important discovery consists of an almost intact tomb of a naturally
mummified archer (Fig. 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase mummified archer (Fig. 1). Also dating from the *Kerma ancien II* phase
(2300-2150 BC), this grave contained the body of a young man, whose head (2300-2150 BC), the same tomb contained the body of a young man, whose head
had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow
remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows
was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers. was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
@ -45,8 +45,8 @@ was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
**~~Figure 1. Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)~~** **~~Figure 1. Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)~~**
The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the
abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as for the numerous abundance of weapons found in its tombs[^4] as well as the abundant evidence
traumas present on its skeletons.[^5] These observations led to the of trauma found on the skeletons there.[^5] These observations led to the
view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of
violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final
phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known
@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ been systematically excavated, taking into account information on the
surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post
holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of
the pits. Knowing that more than 99% of the graves dating from this the pits. Knowing that more than 99% of the graves dating from this
period of the necropolis\'s utilisation were subsequently looted, the period of the necropolis\' utilisation were subsequently looted, the
infill of the pits is often the only way to get an idea of the contents infill of the pits is often the only way to get an idea of the contents
of the tomb and of the ceramics placed on the surface beside the mound. of the tomb and of the ceramics placed on the surface beside the mound.
@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ this makes it possible to distinguish five successive phases between
(Fig. 3).[^8] We thus have a relatively precise chronological framework (Fig. 3).[^8] We thus have a relatively precise chronological framework
which highlights five distinct phases of relatively short duration from which highlights five distinct phases of relatively short duration from
the beginning of Early Kerma to the Middle Kerma. Regarding the spatial the beginning of Early Kerma to the Middle Kerma. Regarding the spatial
analysis, the first observable tendency during this evolution appears to analysis, the first observed tendency during this evolution appears to
be the progressive increase in the size of the graves' pits. These are be the progressive increase in the size of the graves' pits. These are
small and rectangular during *Kerma ancien 0* (average surface of 0.9 small and rectangular during *Kerma ancien 0* (average surface of 0.9
m^2^), becoming oval and only marginally larger during *Kerma ancien I* m^2^), becoming oval and only marginally larger during *Kerma ancien I*
@ -106,13 +106,13 @@ quadrangular than circular (average surface of 5 m^2^). Then, in *Kerma
moyen I* appeared the first royal graves with a diameter ranging between moyen I* appeared the first royal graves with a diameter ranging between
7 to 10 metres. 7 to 10 metres.
In the oldest sectors (*Kerma ancien 0* and *I*), the tombs are all of In the oldest sectors (*Kerma ancien 0* and *I*) the tombs are all of
equal size and their contents do not give the image of strong social equal size and their contents do not give the image of strong social
distinction. As is the rule in the Kerma period, the bodies are laid on distinction. As is the rule in the Kerma period, the bodies are laid on
their right side, head towards the east. The objects found in the tombs their right side, head towards the east. The objects found in the tombs
are not very abundant, metal (gold, copper alloy) is very rare. As are not very abundant and metal (gold, copper alloy) is very rare. With
regards pottery, there is a marked presence of C-Group pots, which will regards to pottery, there is a marked presence of C-Group pots, which
become more discrete over time.[^9] becomes more discrete over time.[^9]
The *Kerma ancien II* phase shows spectacular changes in the funerary The *Kerma ancien II* phase shows spectacular changes in the funerary
rites, compared to the earlier phases in the cemetery. The tombs are rites, compared to the earlier phases in the cemetery. The tombs are
@ -134,8 +134,8 @@ systematically endowed with a bow.[^10]
During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in
the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed
that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). The that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). The
four youngest individuals with a bow are less than 4 years old, and the four youngest individuals with a bow are less than 4 years old and the
one in Figure 5 has a bow that is too large for his size. This one in Figure 5 has a bow that is too large for his age. This
observation and their age -- less than two years for two of them -- observation and their age -- less than two years for two of them --
shows that these bows are not necessarily placed in tombs to express the shows that these bows are not necessarily placed in tombs to express the
activity of the deceased, but also have a symbolic connotation related activity of the deceased, but also have a symbolic connotation related
@ -143,43 +143,42 @@ to male status. The richest graves sometimes distinguish themselves in a
more spectacular manner. One of them had 50 aligned bucrania to the more spectacular manner. One of them had 50 aligned bucrania to the
south and 38 decorated pots on the surface. It is at the beginning of south and 38 decorated pots on the surface. It is at the beginning of
Middle Kerma (*Kerma moyen I*) that the first royal graves appeared, Middle Kerma (*Kerma moyen I*) that the first royal graves appeared,
like that recently discovered in Sector 31, whose diameter exceeds 10 like that recently discovered in Sector 31 of which the diameter exceeds 10
metres, and which has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the metres and has over 1400 bucrania laid out in front of the tumulus.[^11]
tumulus.[^11]
![Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.](../static/images/honegger/Fig5.jpg "Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.") ![Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.](../static/images/honegger/Fig5.jpg "Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.")
**~~Figure 5. Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.~~** **~~Figure 5. Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.~~**
Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and, for this Differences between burials increase during Middle Kerma and for this
period, it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in period it is not rare to find grave-pits of up to 10-15 meters in
diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society diameter. This ranking between burials suggests a stratified society,
which would culminate at the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. The central which would culminate at the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. The central
inhumations in the largest tumuli are supposed to be the graves of the inhumations in the largest tumuli are supposed to be the graves of the
rulers, the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to rulers; the other tumuli could belong to high status individuals or to
free men and women.[^12] In certain instances, a mud-brick chapel was free men and women.[^12] In certain instances a mud-brick chapel was
erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13] erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13]
![Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).](../static/images/honegger/Fig6.jpg "Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).") ![Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).](../static/images/honegger/Fig6.jpg "Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).")
**~~Figure 6. Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).~~** **~~Figure 6. Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).~~**
During Classic Kerma, the diameter of the largest graves is between 30 During Classic Kerma the diameter of the largest graves is between 30
and 90 meters. The three most famous ones were built to a and 90 meters. The three most famous ones were built to a
uniform size with tumuli approximately 90 meters in diameter (KIII, IV, uniform size with tumuli approximately 90 meters in diameter (KIII, IV,
X). Composed of a complex internal structure of mud-brick walls with a X). Composed of a complex internal structure of mud-brick walls with a
corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, they are assumed to corridor giving access to a central vaulted chamber, these tumuli are assumed to
belong to the most powerful rulers of Kerma[^14] (Kendall 1997). The belong to the most powerful rulers of Kerma[^14]. The
grave goods found in these burials and in some subsidiary ones were grave goods found in these burials and in some subsidiary ones were
particularly elaborate and the proportion of Egyptian imports high.[^15] particularly elaborate and the proportion of Egyptian imports high.[^15]
Two monumental funerary temples (KI, KXI) were erected north-west of the Two monumental funerary temples (KI, KXI) were erected north-west of the
tumuli KIII and KX. The Eastern Cemetery was abandoned as a location for tumuli KIII and KX. The Eastern Cemetery was abandoned as a location for
royal burials during the conquest of Kush by the Egyptians of the 18th royal burials during the conquest of Kush by the Egyptians of the 18th
Dynasty, about 1500 BC. A last royal grave was erected 4 km to the west, Dynasty, about 1500 BC. A last royal grave was erected 4 km to the west,
south of the ancient town of Kerma, and dates about 1480 BC.[^16] south of the ancient town of Kerma and dates about 1480 BC.[^16]
# The archers' graves # The archers' graves
From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Fig. From the *Kerma ancien II* to the *Kerma moyen I* phases onwards (Fig.
3), all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped 3) all male tombs that we excavated between 2008 and 2018 are equipped
with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too
looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as
the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is
@ -195,12 +194,12 @@ without looking at the previous excavations of Reisner and Bonnet.
**~~Figure 7. Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.~~** **~~Figure 7. Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.~~**
The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was
excavated in 1915 by Reisner, then in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp excavated in 1915 by Reisner and in 1916 by his assistant W. G. Kemp
(135 graves). The documentation published after the death of (135 graves). The documentation published after the death of
Reisner,[^18] is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery Reisner[^18] is of lesser quality than for the southern part of the cemetery,
corresponding to Classic Kerma and excavated in 1913-1914.[^19] The corresponding to Classic Kerma and excavated in 1913-1914.[^19] The
tombs excavated by Kemp have not been spatially located. Nevertheless, tombs excavated by Kemp have not been spatially located. Nevertheless,
we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers *Kerma we know from our excavations that the \"Cemetery North\" covers the *Kerma
ancien III* and *Kerma moyen I* phases. The documentation identifies the ancien III* and *Kerma moyen I* phases. The documentation identifies the
grave of a woman with a staff, but there is no evidence of bows. In view grave of a woman with a staff, but there is no evidence of bows. In view
of the discreet nature of the evidence for archery, we believe that it of the discreet nature of the evidence for archery, we believe that it
@ -208,18 +207,17 @@ has simply not been identified. It must be said that the tombs were
systematically excavated by Egyptians from the village of Kouft, systematically excavated by Egyptians from the village of Kouft,
assisted by Nubians. It is therefore very likely that they simply did assisted by Nubians. It is therefore very likely that they simply did
not observe these fleeting remains. In the "Cemetery M" (Middle Kerma, not observe these fleeting remains. In the "Cemetery M" (Middle Kerma,
see fig. 3) which dates of Middle Kerma, the documentation, published see fig. 3), the documentation, published with that of the "Cemetery N",
with that of the "Cemetery N" is not better than this latter. No archer is not better than the latter. No archer or bow was identified. It is
or bow was identified. It is only in Classic Kerma that this practice only in Classic Kerma that this practice seems to disappear, according
seems to disappear, according to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is to Reisner's documentation,[^20] which is of much better quality than
of much better quality than that published by Dunham.[^21] It must be that published by Dunham.[^21] It must be said that this part of the
said that this part of the cemetery is different from that of Early and cemetery is different from that of Early and Middle Kerma. Our demographic
Middle Kerma. Our demographic estimate for the Eastern Cemetery estimate for the Eastern Cemetery suggests at least 36,000 buried individuals,
concludes that there were at least 36,000 individuals buried, but the but those attributed to Classic Kerma envelops only 700 individuals.
part attributed to Classic Kerma yields only 700. Simulations of burial Simulations of burial recruitment show that this part of the cemetery
recruitment show that this part of the cemetery is the most selective is the most selective and contains only a small section of the ruling class,
and contains only a small section of the ruling class, in contrast to in contrast to earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by
earlier periods. At this time, the armed persons are accompanied by
daggers, which led Hafsaas to conclude that there was a warrior daggers, which led Hafsaas to conclude that there was a warrior
elite displaying this type of weapon, as was the case in Europe in the elite displaying this type of weapon, as was the case in Europe in the
Late Bronze and Iron Ages.[^22] Late Bronze and Iron Ages.[^22]
@ -231,7 +229,7 @@ remains as bow stings. Nevertheless, Bonnet reports the presence of some
archers in Early Kerma sectors, as well as in Middle Kerma sectors. The archers in Early Kerma sectors, as well as in Middle Kerma sectors. The
famous mummy of an archer (Fig. 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma famous mummy of an archer (Fig. 1) comes from Sector 4[^23] (*Kerma
ancien II*) and five other graves of archers were excavated in Sector 23 ancien II*) and five other graves of archers were excavated in Sector 23
(Kerma (*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers (*Kerma ancien II*).[^24] For Middle Kerma, two graves of archers
were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as
well as another in sector 20 (*Kerma moyen IV*).[^25] Finally, we had well as another in sector 20 (*Kerma moyen IV*).[^25] Finally, we had
the opportunity to excavate a grave in sector 24 (*Kerma moyen V*) which the opportunity to excavate a grave in sector 24 (*Kerma moyen V*) which
@ -266,18 +264,18 @@ leads one to believe that it was strung when placed in the tomb. The bow
is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is
occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity
(Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used (Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used
to manufacture the bows, since these had been too severely damaged by to manufacture the bows since these had been too severely damaged by
termites. termites.
![Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).](../static/images/honegger/Fig9.jpg "Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).") ![Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).](../static/images/honegger/Fig9.jpg "Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).")
**~~Figure 9. Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).~~** **~~Figure 9. Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).~~**
\- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, are similar \- Reed arrows with a tail and several embedded microliths, similar
to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6th to 12th to the arrows of Naga-ed-Der in Egypt, dated to the 6th to 12th
Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The Dynasty, i.e., a period contemporaneous with Middle Kerma.[^31] The
arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint arrowheads are lunates made of quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint
(Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of (Fig. 10). The few surviving examples correspond to the A3 type of
fitting defined by Clark et al.,[^32] with one placed at the tip of the fitting defined by Clark et al.[^32] with one lunate placed at the tip of the
arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been
inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed
directly in the archer\'s left hand. directly in the archer\'s left hand.
@ -288,7 +286,7 @@ directly in the archer\'s left hand.
\- A goat-skin leather quiver. Its presence in the tombs is not \- A goat-skin leather quiver. Its presence in the tombs is not
systematic, but we have been able to identify seven more or less systematic, but we have been able to identify seven more or less
complete ones. They are sewn, some wide and rather short, while others complete ones. They are sewn, some wide and rather short, while others
are slenderer, like the example in Figure 11. are more slender, like the example in Figure 11.
![Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).](../static/images/honegger/Fig11.jpg "Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).") ![Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).](../static/images/honegger/Fig11.jpg "Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).")
**~~Figure 11. Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~** **~~Figure 11. Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
@ -297,7 +295,7 @@ are slenderer, like the example in Figure 11.
typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few
cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are
always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two
concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known in concave sides and a pointed end. Some similar specimens are known from
Egypt in the mass grave of soldiers found at Deir el-Bahari of the 12th Egypt in the mass grave of soldiers found at Deir el-Bahari of the 12th
Dynasty.[^33] This type of wrist-guard is unusual in Egypt and some Dynasty.[^33] This type of wrist-guard is unusual in Egypt and some
authors considered it to have come from the north, but it probably authors considered it to have come from the north, but it probably
@ -306,7 +304,7 @@ belongs to Nubian archers originally attached to the Kerma culture.[^34]
![Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).](../static/images/honegger/Fig12.jpg "Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).") ![Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).](../static/images/honegger/Fig12.jpg "Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).")
**~~Figure 12. Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).~~** **~~Figure 12. Leather archer’s wrist-guard (Kerma moyen I, Sector 8).~~**
![Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).](../static/images/honegger/Fig13.jpg "Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).") ![Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).](../static/images/honegger/Fig13.jpg "Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).")
**~~Figure 13. Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~** **~~Figure 13. Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
![Detail of a Nubian archer depicted on a fresco from the Temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali that describes the expedition of Rameses II to Nubia (New Kingdom).](../static/images/honegger/Fig14.jpg "Detail of a Nubian archer depicted on a fresco from the Temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali that describes the expedition of Rameses II to Nubia (New Kingdom).") ![Detail of a Nubian archer depicted on a fresco from the Temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali that describes the expedition of Rameses II to Nubia (New Kingdom).](../static/images/honegger/Fig14.jpg "Detail of a Nubian archer depicted on a fresco from the Temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali that describes the expedition of Rameses II to Nubia (New Kingdom).")
@ -330,13 +328,13 @@ has its wool, which can be dark brown, beige, or quite frequently
bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). This bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). This
bicoloured fur, which bears witness to a selection process resulting bicoloured fur, which bears witness to a selection process resulting
from advanced domestication,[^36] could be a form of imitation of the from advanced domestication,[^36] could be a form of imitation of the
coat of leopards, such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we coat of leopards such as those found on Egyptian frescoes. However, we
never found a leopard-skin loincloth during our excavations in the never found a leopard-skin loincloth during our excavations in the
Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were Eastern Cemetery. Moreover, we cannot exclude that some archers were
naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from naked and did not wear a loincloth, as suggested by an engraving from
Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract (Fig. 17), where a series of six archers Wadi Sabu at the 3rd cataract where a series of six archers
wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very wearing a feather on their head, are rendered in a figurative style very
close to that observed at Kerma;[^37] among this group, only one archer close to that observed at Kerma (Fig. 17);[^37] among this group, only one archer
is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not
have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the
headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband
@ -355,24 +353,24 @@ attach a feather.[^38]
# Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state # Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state
At Kerma, men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their At Kerma men and boys of all ages are systematically buried with their
archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards, and this continues for archers\' equipment from about 2300 BC onwards and this continues for
several centuries, probably until the end of the Middle Kerma about 1750 several centuries, probably until the end of Middle Kerma about 1750
BC. Clearly, there is a symbolic dimension to this display, underscored BC. Clearly, there is a symbolic dimension to this display, underscored
by the fact that even children as young as 1.5 years old are equipped by the fact that even children as young as 1,5 years old are equipped
with bows. Moreover, researchers have repeatedly pointed out that there with bows. Moreover, researchers have repeatedly pointed out that there
are numerous instances of evidence for violence in the Classic Kerma are numerous instances of evidence for violence in the Classic Kerma
part of the cemetery,[^39] and the anthropologist working on the part of the cemetery,[^39] and the anthropologist working on the
skeletons of Early Kerma has also noted the abundance of such evidence, skeletons of Early Kerma has also noted the abundance of such evidence,
especially on young men.[^40] It must therefore be admitted that the especially on young men.[^40] It must therefore be admitted that the
presence of archers cannot only be symbolic and that it also reflects presence of archers cannot only be symbolic and that it also reflects
the status of these warriors, who were perhaps trained in the handling the status of these warriors who were perhaps trained in the handling
of the bow from a very young age. As reported by the Egyptians, this of the bow from a very young age. As reported by the Egyptians, this
weapon was of major importance in Nubia and at the time of Early Kerma, weapon was of major importance in Nubia and at the time of Early Kerma,
the hundreds of excavated tombs did not reveal many other kinds of the hundreds of excavated tombs did not reveal many other kinds of
weapons. Mace heads are exceptional in this period, and we found only weapons. Mace heads are exceptional in this period and we found only
one in 409 excavated tombs. The spears must have been made of wood or one in 409 excavated tombs. Spears must have been made of wood or
composite material. We found a long point manufactured from a mammal composite material as we found a long point manufactured from a mammal
long bone that could have been the apex of a spear. As for copper alloy long bone that could have been the apex of a spear. As for copper alloy
daggers, they only appear at the end of Early Kerma and become more daggers, they only appear at the end of Early Kerma and become more
numerous during Middle Kerma, becoming more elongated, to finally be numerous during Middle Kerma, becoming more elongated, to finally be
@ -391,30 +389,30 @@ for the hundreds or even thousands of bucrania deposited to the south of
the tumulus, but also for the quantity of fine ceramics laid out inside the tumulus, but also for the quantity of fine ceramics laid out inside
the pit and around the tumulus. Other criteria, such as the animal and the pit and around the tumulus. Other criteria, such as the animal and
human sacrifices -- which some prefer to call accompanying deaths -- human sacrifices -- which some prefer to call accompanying deaths --
also underline the status of the individuals, insofar as their number is also underline the status of the individuals insofar as their number is
proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of proportional to the dimensions of the grave. Finally, the quantity of
Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of the exchanges (Fig. Egyptian ceramics gives an idea of the intensity of exchanges (Fig.
18). 18).
![Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).](../static/images/honegger/Fig18.jpg "Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).") ![Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotic goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).](../static/images/honegger/Fig18.jpg "Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotic goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).")
**~~Figure 18. Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).~~** **~~Figure 18. Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).~~**
During the first phase of the Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are During the first phase of the Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are
already significant, and it is possible that the presence of several already significant and it is possible that the presence of several
C-Group features is evidence of important contacts between Upper and C-Group features is evidence of important contacts between Upper and
Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase, exchanges decline, a sign of a Lower Nubia.[^42] During the next phase exchanges decline, a sign of a
certain loss of Egyptian control over Lower Nubia, as has already been certain loss of Egyptian control over Lower Nubia as has already been
pointed out.[^43] It is during the *Kerma ancien II* phase (2300-2150 pointed out.[^43] It is during the *Kerma ancien II* phase (2300-2150
BC) that imports increase again. It is also from this time onwards that BC) that imports increase again. It is also from this time onwards that
the archers\' tombs appear, that the distinctions between the tombs the archers\' tombs appear, that the distinctions between the tombs
start to be significant, and that the wealth becomes more important, start to be significant, and that wealth becomes more important,
notably through the presence of Egyptian copper alloy mirrors which will notably through the presence of Egyptian copper alloy mirrors, which
attract the interest of the looters. tend to attract the interest of looters.
It is precisely during this phase that Egyptian sources mention the It is precisely during this phase that Egyptian sources mention the
famous expeditions of Harkhuf,[^44] a high dignitary of Aswan. His tomb, famous expeditions of Harkhuf,[^44] a high dignitary from Aswan. His tomb,
covered with inscriptions, relates the story of his three journeys to covered with inscriptions, relates the story of his three journeys to
Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II, around 2250 Nubia commissioned by the pharaohs Merenre I and Pepi II around 2250
BC. These were obviously expeditions aimed at reopening trade routes by BC. These were obviously expeditions aimed at reopening trade routes by
making contact and trading with the Nubian populations located south of making contact and trading with the Nubian populations located south of
the 2nd cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations the 2nd cataract[^45]. The narrative tells us that several populations
@ -423,25 +421,24 @@ relations between them[^46]. These groups are already hierarchical with
dominant personalities capable of gathering armed men in quantity, dominant personalities capable of gathering armed men in quantity,
goods, and donkeys by the dozen, to accompany Harkhuf and his escort. It goods, and donkeys by the dozen, to accompany Harkhuf and his escort. It
is likely that Kerma then developed a coercive policy to ensure the is likely that Kerma then developed a coercive policy to ensure the
control of the lucrative trade with the Egyptians, in an atmosphere of control of the lucrative trade with the Egyptians in an atmosphere of
conflicts between tribes or lineages. The valorisation of the role of conflicts between tribes or lineages. The valorisation of the role of
warriors in funeral rites could be a consequence of this. warriors in funeral rites could be a consequence of this.
From this point onwards, the indications of a more marked social From this point onwards, indications of a more marked social
stratification increase rapidly with an increase in imports, in the stratification rapidly increase alongside a growth of imports,
number of human sacrifices, in the number of bucrania in front of the human sacrifices, bucrania in front of the largest tombs, as well as
largest tombs, as well as in the number of red fine ware with black red fine ware with black rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18).
rims, whose decorations multiply (Fig. 18). One can imagine a One can imagine a competition between dominant lineages, as we have
competition between dominant lineages, as we have suggested in an suggested in an analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their
analysis of the significance of fine ceramics and their decorations[^47]. This competition would have lead to the emergence of a
decorations[^47]. This competition will lead to the emergence of a dominant lineage that concentrated wealth and showed it in funeral rites,
dominant lineage that will concentrate the wealth and show it in the as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear around 2000 BC (Fig. 19).
funeral rites, as exemplified by the first royal tombs, which appear It is from this period onwards that the necropolis will undergo a spectacular
around 2000 BC (Fig. 19). It is from this period onwards that the development, much more important demographically than natural population
necropolis will undergo a spectacular development, much more important growth could allow. Kerma must therefore have been the centre of the
demographically than natural population growth could allow. Kerma must kingdom from this period onwards and attracted populations from its
therefore have been the centre of the kingdom from this period onwards kingdom to settle in the region.
and attracted populations from its kingdom to settle in the region.
![View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.](../static/images/honegger/Fig19.jpg "View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.") ![View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.](../static/images/honegger/Fig19.jpg "View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.")
**~~Figure 19. View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.~~** **~~Figure 19. View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.~~**

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content/article/obituary_pagoulatos.md
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@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ keywords: ["Acropole Hotel", "Khartoum", "Greeks in Sudan", "George Pagoulatos"]
The year 2022 marks a jubilee for Nubian studies. Fifty years ago, the The year 2022 marks a jubilee for Nubian studies. Fifty years ago, the
International Society for Nubian Studies (ISNS) was founded during the International Society for Nubian Studies (ISNS) was founded during the
first International Conference for Nubian Studies (ICNS). As then, this first International Conference for Nubian Studies (ICNS). Like then, this
year's ICNS took place in Warsaw, the headquarters of the study of---at year's ICNS took place in Warsaw, the headquarters of the study of---at
least---medieval, or Christian, Nubia. For the ISNS, the jubilee was least---medieval, or Christian, Nubia. For the ISNS, the jubilee was
also, in many ways, a year of reflection on the deeds of the past and also, in many ways, a year of reflection on the deeds of the past and
@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ formalities and kindness. He introduced me to many archaeologists
staying at the Acropole who were willing to share their experiences with staying at the Acropole who were willing to share their experiences with
a novice in the field. I recall how he managed to relieve my stress with a novice in the field. I recall how he managed to relieve my stress with
his kind words and mindful observations during a dinner he planned with his kind words and mindful observations during a dinner he planned with
professors returning from Kerma, the mythical to me capital of Bronze professors returning from Kerma, the (mythical to me) capital of Bronze
Age Sudan; how, when I moved to Sudan, he invited me to the Acropole Age Sudan; how, when I moved to Sudan, he invited me to the Acropole
time and again to meet colleagues who had an interest in or questions time and again to meet colleagues who had an interest in or questions
about Greco-Roman topics to which I could provide some feedback. It is about Greco-Roman topics to which I could provide some feedback. It is
@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ of the Samandalyat, a group of eleven Sudanese women playing the violin
under the guidance of Professor Leila Pastawi on the keyboard under the guidance of Professor Leila Pastawi on the keyboard
instrument. When the group performed at the premises of "Ergamenis," he instrument. When the group performed at the premises of "Ergamenis," he
also showed his generosity and humbleness by offering and serving also showed his generosity and humbleness by offering and serving
himself drinks to more than a hundred people at the concert's drinks himself to more than a hundred people at the concert's
intermission, always with a smile for everyone. intermission, always with a smile for everyone.
The early 2000s, when I was living in Sudan, were perhaps some of the The early 2000s, when I was living in Sudan, were perhaps some of the
@ -145,8 +145,8 @@ most prosperous years for the country thanks not only to the discovery
of oil but also to the constant flow of money that supported the work of of oil but also to the constant flow of money that supported the work of
the numerous NGOs present in the country due to the humanitarian crises the numerous NGOs present in the country due to the humanitarian crises
in all the peripheries controlled by Khartoum. The country felt somewhat in all the peripheries controlled by Khartoum. The country felt somewhat
more open to foreigners, and tourists started coming in larger numbers. more open to foreigners and tourists started coming in larger numbers.
The Acropole Hotel became a hub for this type of visitors too, and The Acropole Hotel became a hub for this type of visitors too and
George's name was known to all involved in the tourism industry. George's name was known to all involved in the tourism industry.
However, whenever one praised him for his services, efficiency, and However, whenever one praised him for his services, efficiency, and
warmth, he always replied on behalf of the entire family---brothers, warmth, he always replied on behalf of the entire family---brothers,
@ -169,4 +169,4 @@ George Pagoulatos are touched by this text or are inspired to reflect on
what makes life in Khartoum meaningful, the presence of researchers in what makes life in Khartoum meaningful, the presence of researchers in
Sudan vital, and the future of the country---hopefully---better, then I Sudan vital, and the future of the country---hopefully---better, then I
trust that we can all see him smiling from his office or from the trust that we can all see him smiling from his office or from the
entrance of the Acropole Hotel, wishing us a good journey ahead. entrance of the Acropole Hotel, wishing us a good journey ahead.