added bib links starostin
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@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ Beyond the Nyima branch, the Temein “plural action” suffix *-(ɨ)t̪* shares
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The confirmation of distributive markers across Nubian, Nyima, and Temein implies that a distributive pluractional was present in Eastern Sudanic from an early stage, with a form like *\*-id.* In Nubian the consonant is palatal,[^50] and although palatals are a difficult area for establishing wider sound correspondences,[^51] the palatal arises in the plausible conditioning environment of a high front vowel.
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The confirmation of distributive markers across Nubian, Nyima, and Temein implies that a distributive pluractional was present in Eastern Sudanic from an early stage, with a form like *\*-id.* In Nubian the consonant is palatal,[^50] and although palatals are a difficult area for establishing wider sound correspondences,[^51] the palatal arises in the plausible conditioning environment of a high front vowel.
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[^50]: . Jakobi points that the other very similar suffix *-íd* in Midob cannot be reconstructed to proto-Nubian from just one Nubian language, so appears to be an innovation, and her observation of its similarity to the Ama suffix clearly suggests borrowing into Midob from Ama’s ancestor or another related language. Hence, the reconstructable pluractional **[i]ɟ* is more viable as the historic cognate of the Ama suffix.
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[^50]: . Jakobi points that the other very similar suffix *-íd* in Midob cannot be reconstructed to proto-Nubian from just one Nubian language, so appears to be an innovation, and her observation of its similarity to the Ama suffix clearly suggests borrowing into Midob from Ama’s ancestor or another related language. Hence, the reconstructable pluractional **[i]ɟ* is more viable as the historic cognate of the Ama suffix.
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[^51]: Rilly,  pp. 303-304.
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[^51]: Rilly, *Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique,* pp. 303-304.
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### Second Historic Pluractionals
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### Second Historic Pluractionals
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title: "Restoring “Nile-Nubian”: How to Balance Lexicostatistics and Etymology in Historical Research on Nubian Languages"
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title: "Restoring “Nile-Nubian”: How to Balance Lexicostatistics and Etymology in Historical Research on Nubian Languages"
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authors: ["georgestarostin.md"]
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authors: ["georgestarostin.md"]
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abstract: "The paper offers a critical analysis of the recent proposal to amend the traditional genealogical classification of Nubian languages by dismantling the genetic unity of the so-called Nile-Nubian languages and positioning one of its former constituents, the Nobiin language, as the earliest offshoot from the Common Nubian stem. Combining straightforward lexicostatistical methodology with more scrupulous etymological analysis of the material, I argue that the evidence in favor of the "Nobiin-as-earliest-offshoot" hypothesis may and, in fact, should rather be interpreted as evidence for a strong lexical substrate in Nobiin, accounting for its accelerated rate of change in comparison to the closely related Kenuzi–Dongolawi (Mattokki–Andaandi) cluster."
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abstract: "The paper offers a critical analysis of the proposal to dismantle the genetic unity of the so-called Nile-Nubian languages by positioning one of its former constituents, the Nobiin language, as the earliest offshoot from the Common Nubian stem. Combining straightforward lexicostatistical methodology with more scrupulous etymological analysis of the material, I argue that the evidence in favor of the hypothesis that Nobiin is the earliest offshoot may and, in fact, should rather be interpreted as evidence for a strong lexical substrate in Nobiin, accounting for its accelerated rate of change in comparison to the closely related Kenuzi–Dongolawi (Mattokki–Andaandi) cluster."
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keywords: ["comparative linguistics", "Nilo-Saharan", "glottochronology", "lexicostatistics", "Nubian"]
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keywords: ["comparative linguistics", "Nilo-Saharan", "glottochronology", "lexicostatistics", "Nubian"]
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@ -322,60 +322,60 @@ In this particular case, I believe that the evidence speaks strongly in favor of
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# Bibliography
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# Bibliography
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Armbruster, Charles H. *Dongolese Nubian: A Lexicon.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.
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Armbruster, Charles H.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. "‘Nile-Nubianʼ Reconsidered." In *Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics,* edited by M. Lionel Bender. Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 1989: pp. 85–96.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne.  In *Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics,* edited by M. Lionel Bender. Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 1989: pp. 85–96.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. "Sprachliche und historische Rekonstruktionen im Bereich des Nubischen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Nilnubischen." *Sprache und Geschichte in Afrik* 6 (1985): pp. 7–134.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne.  *Sprache und Geschichte in Afrik* 6 (1985): pp. 7–134.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. *Sprachwandel durch Sprachkontakt am Beispiel des Nubischen im Niltal: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer diachronen Soziolinguistik.* Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 1996.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. *Sprachwandel durch Sprachkontakt am Beispiel des Nubischen im Niltal: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer diachronen Soziolinguistik.* Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 1996.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne. *The (Hi)story of Nobiin: 1000 Years of Language Change.* Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2011.
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Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne.  Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2011.
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Bell, Herman. "Documentary Evidence on the Haraza Nubian Language." *Sudan Notes and Records* 56 (1975): pp. 1–35.
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Bell, Herman.  *Sudan Notes and Records* 56 (1975): pp. 1–35.
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Browne, Gerald M. *Old Nubian Dictionary.* Leuven: Peeters, 1996.
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Browne, Gerald M.  Leuven: Peeters, 1996.
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Greenberg, Joseph H. *The Languages of Africa.* Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966.
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Greenberg, Joseph H.  Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966.
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Güldemann, Tom. "Historical Linguistics and Genealogical Language Classification in Africa." In *The Languages and Linguistics of Africa,* edited by Tom Güldemann. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2018: pp. 58–444.
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Güldemann, Tom.  In *The Languages and Linguistics of Africa,* edited by Tom Güldemann. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2018: pp. 58–444.
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Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. "Convergence and Divergence in the Development of African Languages." In *Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics,* edited by Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald and R.M.W. Dixon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001: pp. 393–411.
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Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva.  In *Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics,* edited by Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald and R.M.W. Dixon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001: pp. 393–411.
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Hofmann, Inge. *Material für eine meroitische Grammatik.* Veröffentlichungen der Institute für Afrikanistik und Ägyptologie der Universität Wien 16. Vienna: Afro-Pub, 1981.
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Hofmann, Inge.  Veröffentlichungen der Institute für Afrikanistik und Ägyptologie der Universität Wien 16. Vienna: Afro-Pub, 1981.
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Hofmann, Inge. *Nubisches Wörterverzeichnis: Nubisch-deutsches und deutsch-nubisches Wörterverzeichnis nach dem Kenzi-Material des Samuêl Alî Hisên (1863–1927).* Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1986.
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Hofmann, Inge.  Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1986.
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Jakobi, Angelika. "The Loss of Syllable-final Proto-Nubian Consonants". In *Insights into Nilo-Saharan Language, History and Culture,* edited by Al-Amin Abu-Manga, Leoma Gilley & Anne Storch. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 2006: pp. 215–228.
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Jakobi, Angelika.  In *Insights into Nilo-Saharan Language, History and Culture,* edited by Al-Amin Abu-Manga, Leoma Gilley & Anne Storch. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe, 2006: pp. 215–228.
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Kassian, Alexei. "Towards a Formal Genealogical Classification of the Lezgian Languages (North Caucasus): Testing Various Phylogenetic Methods on Lexical Data." *PLoS ONE* 10, no. 2 (2015). [doi]({sc}): [10.1371/journal.pone.0116950](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116950).
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Kassian, Alexei.  *PLoS ONE* 10, no. 2 (2015). [doi]({sc}): [10.1371/journal.pone.0116950](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116950).
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Kauczor, P. Daniel. *Die Bergnubische Sprache (Dialekt von Gebel Deleṅ).* Vienna: Alfred Hölder, 1920.
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Kauczor, P. Daniel.  Vienna: Alfred Hölder, 1920.
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Khalil, Mokhtar M. *Wörterbuch der nubischen Sprache (Fadidja/Maḥas Dialekt).* Warsaw: Piotr O. Scholtz, 1996.
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Khalil, Mokhtar M.  Warsaw: Piotr O. Scholtz, 1996.
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Krell, Amy. *Rapid Appraisal Sociolinguistic Survey among Ama, Karko, and Wali Language Groups (Southern Kordofan, Sudan).* SIL International, 2012.
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Krell, Amy.  SIL International, 2012.
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Lepsius, Richard. *Nubische Grammatik. Mit einer Einleitung über die Völker und Sprachen Afrikas.* Berlin: Wilhelm Hertz, 1880.
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Lepsius, C. Richard.  Berlin: Wilhelm Hertz, 1880.
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Rilly, Claude. "Language and Ethnicity in Ancient Sudan." In *The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies,* edited by Julie Renée Anderson and Derek A. Welsby. British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan, 2014: pp. 1169–1188.
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Rilly, Claude.  In *The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies,* edited by Julie Renée Anderson and Derek A. Welsby. British Museum Publications on Egypt and Sudan, 2014: pp. 1169–1188.
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Rilly, Claude. *Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique.* Leuven: Peeters, 2010.
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Rilly, Claude.  Leuven: Peeters, 2010.
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Rottland, Franz. *Die Südnilotischen Sprachen: Beschreibung, Vergleichung und Rekonstruktion.* Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1982.
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Rottland, Franz.  Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1982.
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Souag, Lameen. *Grammatical Contact in the Sahara: Arabic, Berber, and Songhay in Tabelbala and Siwa.* PhD Thesis, SOAS, University of London, 2010.
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Souag, Lameen.  PhD Thesis, SOAS, University of London, 2010.
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Starostin, George. *Языки Африки. Опыт построения лексикостатистической классификации. Том II: Восточносуданские языки* [*Languages of Africa: An Attempt at a Lexicostatistical Classification, Vol. II: East Sudanic Languages*]. Moscow: Jazyki slavjanskoj kulʼtury, 2014.
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Starostin, George.  [*Languages of Africa: An Attempt at a Lexicostatistical Classification, Vol. II: East Sudanic Languages*]. Moscow: Jazyki slavjanskoj kulʼtury, 2014.
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Thelwall, Robin. "A Birgid Vocabulary List and Its Links with Daju." In *Gedenkschrift Gustav Nachtigall 1874–1974,* edited by Herbert Ganslmayr and Hermann Jungraithmayr. Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1977: pp. 197–210.
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Thelwall, Robin.  In *Gedenkschrift Gustav Nachtigall 1874–1974,* edited by Herbert Ganslmayr and Hermann Jungraithmayr. Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1977: pp. 197–210.
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Thelwall, Robin. “Lexicostatistical Relations between Nubian, Daju and Dinka.” In *Etudes Nubiennes, Colloque de Chantilly, 2-6 Juillet 1975,* edited by Jean Leclant and Jean Vercouttier. Cairo: IFAO, 1978: pp. 265-286.
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Thelwall, Robin.  In *Etudes Nubiennes, Colloque de Chantilly, 2-6 Juillet 1975,* edited by Jean Leclant and Jean Vercouttier. Cairo: IFAO, 1978: pp. 265-286.
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Vasilyev, Mikhail & George Starostin. "Лексикостатистическая классификация нубийских языков: к вопросу о нильско-нубийской языковой общности [Lexicostatistical Classification of the Nubian languages and the Issue of the Nile-Nubian Genetic Unity]." *Journal of Language Relationship* 12 (2014): 51–72.
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Vasilyev, Mikhail & George Starostin.  ["Lexicostatistical Classification of the Nubian languages and the Issue of the Nile-Nubian Genetic Unity"]. *Journal of Language Relationship* 12 (2014): 51–72.
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Voßen, Rainer. *The Eastern Nilotes: Linguistic and Historical Reconstructions.* Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1982.
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Voßen, Rainer.  Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1982.
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Werner, Roland. *Grammatik des Nobiin (Nilnubisch). Phonologie, Tonologie und Morphologie.* Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 1987.
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Werner, Roland.  Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 1987.
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Werner, Roland. *Tìdn-áal: A Study of Midob (Darfur Nubian).* Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1993.
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Werner, Roland.  Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1993.
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@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ title: Roger M. Blench
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# Biography
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# Biography
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Something about the author.
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Roger M. Blench is an anthropologist with interests in archaeology, linguistics and ethnomusicology. He gained his PhD from Cambridge University in 1975 and has since worked as a consultant sociologist. He is a Visiting Fellow at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, a Visiting Lecturer at the University of Jos, and the Chief Research Officer of the Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
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