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title: "The Role of Warfare and Headhunting in Forming Ethnic Identity: Violent Clashes between A-Group and Naqada Peoples in Lower Nubia
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(mid-4th millennium BCE)"
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authors: ["henriettehafsaas.md"]
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abstract: This article reassesses the earliest cemeteries dating to the 4th millennium BCE in northern Lower Nubia. Remains from two cultural groups have been found in the region -- native predecessors of the A-Group people and Naqada people arriving from Upper Egypt. The evidence presented suggests that Naqada people from the chiefdom at Hierakonpolis conducted a violent expansion into Lower Nubia in the mid-4th millennium BCE. The following violent encounters with the natives are testified through injuries and deaths from interpersonal violence in five cemeteries of the predecessors of the A-Group people, young males buried with weapons in a Naqada cemetery in A-Group territory, and a settlement pattern shifting southwards with the Naqada people expanding and the A-Group predecessors retreating. The author argues that the violence led to an ethnogenesis among the native population of northern Lower Nubia, and the ethnic boundary between the two groups became even more defined through headhunting provoking a schismogenesis. This case study provides new insights into warfare in ancient Nubia and an opportunity to discuss ethnic identity, ethnogenesis, and schismogenesis in the Nile Valley at the beginning of the Bronze Age.
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abstract: This article reassesses the earliest cemeteries dating to the 4th millennium BCE in northern Lower Nubia. Remains from two cultural groups have been found in the region -- native predecessors of the A-Group people and Naqada people arriving from Upper Egypt. The evidence presented suggests that Naqada people from the chiefdom at Hierakonpolis conducted a violent expansion into Lower Nubia in the mid-4th millennium BCE. The following violent encounters with the natives are testified through interpersonal violence in five cemeteries of the predecessors of the A-Group people, young males buried with weapons in a Naqada cemetery in A-Group territory, and a settlement pattern shifting southwards with the Naqada people expanding and the A-Group predecessors retreating. The author argues that the violence led to an ethnogenesis among the native population of northern Lower Nubia, and the ethnic boundary between the two groups became even more defined through headhunting provoking a schismogenesis. This case study provides new insights into warfare in ancient Nubia and an opportunity to discuss ethnic identity, ethnogenesis, and schismogenesis in the Nile Valley at the beginning of the Bronze Age.
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keywords: ["Warfare", "ethnicity", "headhunting", "schismogenesis", "Early
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Bronze Age", "Nubia", "Egypt"]
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---
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@ -395,7 +395,7 @@ Naqada I. Weapons were absent as grave goods in these graves.
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## Cemetery 41 on the Meris Plain
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Cemetery 41/200 was located on the central knoll of the Meris
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plain.[^83] A total of 37 human graves and three animal graves were
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plain, ca. 25 kilometers south of Shellal.[^83] A total of 37 human graves and three animal graves were
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excavated. The bodies with recorded burial positions were placed on the
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left side in 13 graves and the right side in 12 graves, which means that
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52 per cent were placed on the left side. The grave goods consisted of
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@ -514,7 +514,7 @@ Other weapons uncovered were flint daggers, flint knives, flint and
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chalcedony blades, and various types of arrowheads. Except for the
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lunates, these weapons were characteristic of the Naqada people. Some of
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the arrowheads had their closest parallels at Hierakonpolis in southern
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Upper Egypt, which suggests that this was the homeland of the
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Upper Egypt, suggesting that this was the homeland of the
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individuals buried in Cemetery 17 (Figure 5).
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@ -675,14 +675,14 @@ injuries seem related to interpersonal violence and may have occurred
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during a single attack. The male in grave 24 also had a healed fracture
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of the middle of the right clavicle (Figure 7b).[^146]
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**~~Figure 7a: Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 24. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).~~**
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**~~Figure 7a: Healed fracture of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. Male in grave 24. No scale. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: figure 74).~~**
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**~~Figure 7b: Healed fractures of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. No scale. Male in grave 29. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 75).~~**
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**~~Figure 7b: Healed fracture of clavicle from proto-phase A-Group graves in Cemetery 17. Male in grave 29. No scale. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 75).~~**
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The archaeologists recorded no injuries related to interpersonal
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violence at Cemetery 41/200, but the skeletal remains were fragmentary
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@ -696,9 +696,9 @@ instrument. This individual received seven incisions across the
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posterior surface of two of the cervical vertebrae (Figure
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8).[^148]
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**~~Figure 8: The male in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. From Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).~~**
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**~~Figure 8: The male in grave 211 in Cemetery 45 had seven cut marks on his third and fourth cervical vertebrae. Drawing from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910: fig. 69).~~**
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This practice of execution has in recent years been revealed
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on a large scale at Hierakonpolis.[^149] The anatomists suggested that a
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@ -1125,9 +1125,9 @@ ca. 3085 BCE.[^212]
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**~~Appendix 5: Burials with human remains and individuals with absent or broken skulls in Cemetery 41. Data from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910).~~**
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**~~Appendix 6: Burials with human remains in Cemetery 45. Osteological case descriptions for individuals with evidence of trauma related to interpersonal violence and missing or broken skulls. Data from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910).~~**
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**~~Appendix 6: Burials with human remains in Cemetery 45. Osteological case descriptions for individuals with evidence of trauma related to interpersonal violence and absent or broken skulls. Data from Elliot Smith and Wood Jones (1910).~~**
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# Acknowledgements
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@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ Ivan Miroshnikov. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming.
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Griffith, Francis Llewellyn. "Christian Documents from
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Nubia." *Proceedings of the British Academy* 14 (1928): pp. 117-46.
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Hafsaas, Henriette, and Alexandros Tsakos. "Michael and Other Archangels behind an Eight-Pointed Cross-Symbol from Medieval Nubia: A View from Sai Island in Northern Sudan," *Pharos Journal of Theology* \[DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.102.12\].
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Hafsaas, Henriette, and Alexandros Tsakos. "Michael and Other Archangels behind an Eight-Pointed Cross-Symbol from Medieval Nubia: A View from Sai Island in Northern Sudan," *Pharos Journal of Theology* \[https://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/corrected_new_theme_1_article_2_se1_2021_-_hafsaas___tsakos_michael_behind_eight-pointed_cross-1.pdf\].
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Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. "Edges of Bronze
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and Expressions of Masculinity: The Emergence of a Warrior Class at
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@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ is dividing the country along ethnic boundaries with great human
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sufferings. In the north, Sudan had a central government at war with
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systematically marginalized peripheries and a suppressed population.
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Increasing resistance from the inhabitants resulted in the toppling of
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the old regime in 2019. The transitional government failed to install
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the old regime in 2019. However, the transitional government failed to install
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civilian rule in Sudan, and the military took full control of the
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government in a coup in October 2021. The Sudanese people have taken to
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the streets numerous times since 2019 demanding civilian rule, and their
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@ -64,8 +64,12 @@ understanding of interaction between people in this land.
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Despite being delayed by the pandemic and its consequences for research,
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we are delighted to finally publish this *Dotawo* volume on "War in
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Sudan". Five articles are included after some contributors were
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prevented from completing their articles. The aim of this thematic issue
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Sudan". Five articles are included after three contributors were
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prevented from completing their articles.
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We are deeply saddened by the passing of Karin Willemse (1962-2023).[^4] She wished to contribute to the volume with an article from her inspiring anthropological research on gender and war in Sudan: *"Women of value, men of renown": The social construction of gendered notions of gendered personhood in Darfur and Nubia in times of duress.* Karin's contributions to Sudan Studies will be greatly missed, but we are confident that her work will continue to inspire and influence others. Our thoughts are with her family and close colleagues.
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The aim of this thematic collection
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is to offer new insights on wars and violent conflict in the Sudan
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either as case-studies or as broader historical patterns.
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@ -87,7 +91,7 @@ freedom of expressions and greater creativity in Fine Arts, Street art,
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and online art. The volume thus covers some major chronological phases
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of Nubia and Sudan from the earliest Bronze Age until today.
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The articles in this issue also cover a wide geographical area along the
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The articles in this issue also span a wide geographical area along the
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Nile. The first article by Hafsaas focus on the First Cataract region in
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the northernmost part of Nubia and outside the borders of today's Sudan.
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Honegger's article on the archers is set at Kerma above the Third
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@ -104,12 +108,12 @@ access to both readers and authors since its launch in 2014. Since the
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previous volume, *Dotawo* has been even more committed to open
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scholarship by linking the references in the journal to records with
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open access, as far as possible. The aim is to give access to research
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to those without privileged access to institutional libraries.[^4] This
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to those without privileged access to institutional libraries.[^5] This
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great work to make the research openly available has largely been
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undertaken by Vincent W.J. van Gerven Oei, managing editor from 2014 to
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2022. I am grateful to managing editor Alexandros Tsakos for the
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typesetting in an open-source infrastructure. Personally, publishing
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openly in this way is incredible despite the additional efforts. I hope
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openly in this way is fulfilling despite the additional efforts. I hope
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the readers find the result accessible and appealing.
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**Acknowledgements**
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@ -131,6 +135,9 @@ Gat, Azar. *War in Human Civilization*. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
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Van Gerven Oei, Vincent W.J. "Preface by the Editor." *Dotawo: A Journal
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of Nubian Studies* 7 (2020): pp. 1-10.
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Gewald, Ja-Bart, Freek Colombijn, Azeb Amha, and Sabine Luning, "In Memorian Karin Willemse (1962-2023)."
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\[https://www.ascleiden.nl/news/memoriam-karin-willemse-1962-2023\]
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Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette. *War on the Southern Frontier of the Emerging
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State of Ancient Egypt. A Warfare Perspective on the History of the
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A-Group People in Lower Nubia during the 4th millennium BCE*.
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@ -147,5 +154,7 @@ Otterbein, Keith F. *How War Began*. Texas: A&M University Press, 2004.
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[^3]: Crevecoeur et al., "New Insights on Interpersonal Violence in the
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Late Pleistocene Based on the Nile Valley Cemetery of Jebel Sahaba."
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[^4]: Van Gerven Oei, "Preface by the Editor," pp. 1-3.
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[^4]: Gewald et al. "In Memoriam Karin Willemse (1962.2023)."
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[^5]: Van Gerven Oei, "Preface by the Editor," pp. 1-3.
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