had been displaced by grave-robbers.[^2] He was accompanied by arrow
remains and two bows of simple curvature, 120 cm long. One of the bows
was decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers.
**~~Figure 1. Reconstruction of the grave of the mummified archer excavated by Bonnet (1982), made with the original natural mummy, pottery and plume of ostrich feathers (Kerma ancien II, 2300-2150 BC)~~**
The Eastern Cemetery of the Kingdom of Kerma[^3] is known for the
view of this society as a warlike aristocracy, where testimonies of
violence were common. These reflections have so far focused on the final
phase of the cemetery and of the Kingdom (1750-1500 BC), best known
thanks to the work of George A. Reisner, undertaken at the beginning of
the 20th century.[^6] Since then, excavations were undertaken between
1979 and 1999 by Charles Bonnet, who investigated 27 sectors spread over
its entire surface (Fig. 2), and between 2008 and 2018, we have
undertaken systematic excavations in sectors of the early stages of the
cemetery (2550-1950 BC), that correspond to the formation of the Kingdom
of Kerma.[^7] They provide previously unpublished information on the
appearance of the first warriors in the form of the famous Nubian
archers, on cases of violence, as well as on the phenomena of servitude,
wealth, and funerary ostentation that was co-eval with the birth of the
kingdom and its domination over a large part of Upper Nubia.
**~~Figure 2. Plan of the Eastern Cemetery with the locations of large graves excavated since the early 20th century identified. The sectors investigated by Reisner between 1913-1916 are indicated. Sectors 1-27 were excavated by Bonnet between 1980-1997, whilst Sectors 27-31, as well as Sector 8, have been excavated or re-examined during our excavations which began in 2008.~~**
# The Eastern Cemetery of Kerma and its new excavation
As part of our programme on the evolution of society in Early Kerma, we
have reinvestigated and completed the excavations of Sectors 23, 27, and
8, and have opened Sectors 28, 29, 30, and 31 (Fig. 3). The tombs have
been systematically excavated, taking into account information on the
surface (burial mounds, ceramic deposits, bucrania, fireplaces, and post
holes) and collecting the material contained in the tombs and infill of
the pits. Knowing that more than 99% of the graves dating from this
infill of the pits is often the only way to get an idea of the contents
of the tomb and of the ceramics placed on the surface beside the mound.
**~~Figure 3. Map of the Early Kerma and early Middle Kerma sectors in the Eastern Cemetery. From the initial installation in Kerma ancien 0 (2550-2450 BC) to the emergence of the first royal tomb in Kerma moyen I (2050-1950 BC), the dimensions of the tombs increase, the rituals become more complex and the hierarchisation of society increases until the appearance of a royalty.~~**
The work undertaken in recent years has made it possible to build a
precise chronology for the early phases of the cemetery, from the
beginning of Early Kerma to the beginning of Middle Kerma. The study and
spatial distribution of the 409 tombs excavated since 2008 allows us to
follow in detail each stage from the evolution of funeral rites. An
absolute chronology was constructed using 23 14C dates that were
confronted with the typology of Kerma pottery and Egyptian imports, and
this makes it possible to distinguish five successive phases between
2550 and 1950 BC: *Kerma ancien 0, I, II, III,* and *Kerma moyen I*
(Fig. 3).[^8] We thus have a relatively precise chronological framework
which highlights five distinct phases of relatively short duration from
the beginning of Early Kerma to the Middle Kerma. Regarding the spatial
The *Kerma ancien II* phase shows spectacular changes in the funerary
rites, compared to the earlier phases in the cemetery. The tombs are
generally larger and contain more objects. Metal is more regularly
attested, notably in the form of bronze mirrors and gold necklaces or
pendants. Animal sacrifices make their appearance (dogs, caprines) as
well as bucrania in front of some tumuli. Tombs with multiple burials
are also more frequent, indicating the development of accompanying or
sacrificed people, which will increase significantly in the succeeding
periods. The distinction between male and female graves becomes
systematic and stereotyped (Fig. 4). If the buried women are
systematically endowed with a stick, an ornament, and sometimes
particular objects or tools such as potter\'s tools, the male tombs are
systematically endowed with a bow.[^10]
**~~Figure 4. Graves of an archer and of a woman with a stick of the Kerma ancien II Phase (2300-2100 BC), found in Sector 23 of the Easter Cemetery of Kerma. The grave of the archer contained two individuals: a young man in the central position and a woman placed by his side. A dog, a bow, an ostrich feathers fan, and a bronze mirror accompanied the young man. The grave with a wooden stick contained a woman aged 20-29 years. Both graves were partially plundered and a part of the skeletons is here reconstructed.~~**
During the *Kerma ancien III* phase, the same tendencies identified in
the previous phase continued. In the sectors of this period, we noticed
that young boys\' graves were also accompanied by bows (Fig. 5). The
**~~Figure 5. Intact grave of a 1.5-year-old child with a bow, a cushion made of vegetable matter, and a pot (Kerma ancien III, Sector 29). As is the rule in Kerma graves, the body was placed on a carefully cut piece of bovine pelt.~~**
erected on the west side of the tumulus (Fig. 6).[^13]
**~~Figure 6. Middle Kerma grave with bucrania deposited south of the tumuli and a mud-brick chapel located to the west (ca. 1900 BC).~~**
with a bow, even those of children.[^17] Of course, many graves are too
looted to conclude that archery equipment was present, but as soon as
the grave is better preserved, the presence of archery elements is
attested, the smallest clue being the presence of the string made of
twisted sinews, probably from sheep or goats (Fig. 7). In view of the
number of graves excavated, we can therefore suppose that the presence
of men or boys with weapons is systematic for the earlier phases.
However, it is not possible to conclude definitively that the presence
of male archers was systematic for all phases of the Eastern Cemetery
without looking at the previous excavations of Reisner and Bonnet.
**~~Figure 7. Bowstring made of sheep's or goat's sinew with a fixation system at one end.~~**
The \"Cemetery North\", close to our excavations (2008-2018), was
were discovered in Sector 9 and one in Sector 11 (*Kerma moyen I*), as
well as another in sector 20 (*Kerma moyen IV*).[^25] Finally, we had
the opportunity to excavate a grave in sector 24 (*Kerma moyen V*) which
contained 36 lunates corresponding to arrowheads.[^26] From all these
observations, we can assume that the tradition of male burials as
archers started in the *Kerma ancien II* phase and must have continued
until the end of Middle Kerma.[^27]
Let us return to the archers\' graves of the oldest sectors.[^28] Their
equipment consists of:
**~~Figure 8. Plundered grave containing an adult with his leather loincloth and a double bend bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23). At the bottom: general view of the grave. At the top: detail of the bow whose length is over 1,5 m.~~**
\- One or two bows, single or double-curved (Fig. 8). It seems to us
that not too much should be made of this distinction, because the double
curvature can be achieved by deformation. It does not necessarily
suggest a composite bow, attested in Egypt later and supposedly
introduced by the Hyksos.[^29] The bow with a double curvature does not
necessarily imply that it is composite, which is a far more
sophisticated manufacturing technique, since it is not attested in
Africa at this time. On the other hand, ethnographic material describes
simple techniques to obtain a strong incurvation of the extremities of
the bow, which consist in bending the wood by means of ligaments and
forms.[^30] It is probably the use of similar techniques which explain
the well-attested differences in the Nubian bows. The most common
dimension is 120 cm, but two larger bows, about 150 cm long, have been
found. In a child's tomb, a small model, about 90 cm long, was
discovered. The remains of bow-strings have often been found in situ
alongside the bow. In some instances, the extent of the bow's curvature
leads one to believe that it was strung when placed in the tomb. The bow
is always placed to the north of the body, close to the hands. It is
occasionally decorated with a plume of ostrich feathers at its extremity
(Fig. 9). It has not been possible to identify the species of wood used
**~~Figure 9. Plume of ostrich feathers with a string, which was rolled up at the extremity of the bow (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23).~~**
arrow and the other two at the sides. The arrows would have been
inserted in a quiver, but in at least one instance they were placed
directly in the archer\'s left hand.
**~~Figure 10. Middle Kerma quartz and carnelian lunates used as arrowheads (Kerma moyen V, Sector 24).~~**
\- A goat-skin leather quiver. Its presence in the tombs is not
systematic, but we have been able to identify seven more or less
complete ones. They are sewn, some wide and rather short, while others
**~~Figure 11. Leather quiver 72 cm long with braided leather strap attachment (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
\- A leather archer\'s wrist-guard of a specific model that seems to be
typical of the Kerma tradition (Fig. 12). These have been found in a few
cases *in situ*, on the left wrist of the deceased (Fig. 13), they are
always of the same design, with the protective part provided with two
**~~Figure 13. Intact grave of an 18 years old archer. He wore a necklace with a Red Sea shell pendant, an ostrich feather fan, an archer’s wrist-guard on his left wrist, and a sheepskin loincloth covering his hips and legs. He held a few arrows in his hands and a bow was placed beside him, of which only a few traces were left by termites. At his feet, a sacrificial ram is tied with a rope that goes around the archer's waist several times (Kerma moyen I, Sector 31).~~**
**~~Figure 14. Detail of a Nubian archer depicted on a fresco from the Temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali that describes the expedition of Rameses II to Nubia (New Kingdom).~~**
These observations will be the subject of more detailed descriptions in
the future, especially the numerous leather objects, which are the
subject of a recently started PhD thesis.[^35] Of all the tombs
excavated, only two adult tombs were almost (Fig. 1) or completely
intact (Fig. 13). Enriched by the observations made on the other male
tombs, it is possible to reconstruct the appearance of these archers,
who resemble quite closely the representations made by the Egyptians,
notably those on the temple of Amun at Beit El-Wali, which describe the
expedition of Rameses II in Nubia (Fig. 14). Although later than the
tombs where we made our observations, the white earrings of the men
depicted in these frescoes are the same as those that first appear in
the *Kerma ancien II* phase and continue thereafter. In fact, these
earrings obtained from a Nile shell were found only in male tombs (Fig.
15). Similarly, the men of Kerma wear a sheep-skin loincloth that still
has its wool, which can be dark brown, beige, or quite frequently
bicoloured, with alternating black and beige spots (Fig. 16). This
bicoloured fur, which bears witness to a selection process resulting
from advanced domestication,[^36] could be a form of imitation of the
is wearing a loincloth, while the others are naked. Finally, we did not
have occasion to observe the presence of a feather belonging to the
headdress of the buried, but Bonnet points out the trace of a headband
in the tomb of a mummified archer (Fig. 1) that could have served to
attach a feather.[^38]
**~~Figure 15. Shell earrings from male graves (Kerma ancien II, Sector 23). Their diameter is between 2 and 3 cm.~~**
**~~Figure 16. Sheep-skin loincloth that still has its wool (Kerma ancien I, Sector 27). The bicoloured fur is composed of black and beige spots.~~**
**~~Figure 17. Scene representing archers on a rock engraving at the 3rd cataract (Wadi Es-Sabu, 3rd or 2nd millennium BC, height of archers about 15 cm). One of them wears a loin-cloth and all have a head dress made of an ostrich feather, a typical Nubian adornment frequently used by the Egyptians when representing their southern neighbours.~~**
# Evolution of funeral rites and the emergence of a state
**~~Figure 18. Competitive lavish funerals are evidenced by the increase of deposits of exotics goods in and next to the grave, ‘sacrificed people’, bucrania, and elaborate funerary pots. The proportions were calculated on the basis of 409 graves excavated between 2008 and 2018 (Honegger 2018b).~~**
During the first phase of the Eastern Cemetery, exchanges with Egypt are
**~~Figure 19. View of the first Kerma royal tomb (Kerma moyen I, 2050-1950 BC). One can see the edge of the burial tumulus made of earth and stones, the post holes of a wooden architectural structure inside the burial pit and more than 1400 bucrania to the south of the tomb. The diameter of the burial pit is about 10 metres.~~**
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