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@ -152,22 +152,19 @@ While Agamben had the capacity to control his fingerprints being taken back in 2
[^stenum_10] Broeders 2010.
[^stenum_11] Cp. European Commission, “on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of fingerprints for the effective application of [Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person], for identifying an illegally stayingthird-country national or stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes (recast)”, *Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council*, COM(2016), 272 final, May 4, 2016. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/
transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-272-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017]; “Eurodac is a computerised system consisting of a central unit, which operates the central database of biometric data, and of a communication infrastructure for transmitting the data between the Member States and the central unit. […] Member States are required to record the fingerprint data of all persons who are seeking asylum or who have been apprehended crossing the external border irregularly.” EPRS, “Recast EUrodac regulation”, October 2016, not accessible anymore.
[^stenum_11] Cp. European Commission, “on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of fingerprints for the effective application of [Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person], for identifying an illegally stayingthird-country national or stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes (recast)”, *Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council*, COM(2016), 272 final, May 4, 2016. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-272-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017]; “Eurodac is a computerised system consisting of a central unit, which operates the central database of biometric data, and of a communication infrastructure for transmitting the data between the Member States and the central unit. […] Member States are required to record the fingerprint data of all persons who are seeking asylum or who have been apprehended crossing the external border irregularly.” EPRS, “Recast EUrodac regulation”, October 2016, not accessible anymore.
[^stenum_12] Cp. Didier Bigo, Sergio Carrera, Ben Hayes, Nicholas Hernanz, and Julien Jeandesboz, “Justice and home affairs databases and a smart borders system at EU external borders. An evaluation of current and forthcoming proposals”, *CEPS paper in Liberty and Security*, 52, 2012.
[^stenum_13] The term Biometrics covers a range of different physical and behavioural elements linked to the body: e.g. fingerprints, face recognition, iris scan, DNA, vein analysis, gait, and heart rhythm.
[^stenum_14] Based on the Prüm Convention: Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration. Cp. Auswärtiges Amt, “Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourgh, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration, Prüm/Eifel, 27 May 2005”, *Auswärtiges Amt*, 2015. Available at: http://www.auswaertiges amt.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/607270/publicationFile/
165214/Statusliste-EN.pdf [accessed June 27, 2017].
[^stenum_14] Based on the Prüm Convention: Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration. Cp. Auswärtiges Amt, “Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourgh, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration, Prüm/Eifel, 27 May 2005”, *Auswärtiges Amt*, 2015. Available at: http://www.auswaertigesamt.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/607270/publicationFile/165214/Statusliste-EN.pdf [accessed June 27, 2017].
[^stenum_15] The Schengen Information System (SIS) is a large-scale information system that supports external border control and law enforcement cooperation in the Schengen States. The Visa Information System (VIS) allows Schengen States to exchange visa data. It consists of a central IT system and of a communication infrastructure that links this central system to national systems. Cp. European Commission, “Schengen Area”, *Migration and Home Affairs*, 2017. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen_en [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_16] Cp. European Commission, “Overview of information management in the area of freedom, security and justice”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2010) 385 final, July 20, 2010. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2010/EN/1-2010-385-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_17] Cp. European Commission, “Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 205 final, June 4, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/
regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-205-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_17] Cp. European Commission, “Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 205 final, June 4, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-205-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_18] Cp. European Commission, COM(2016) 205 final, p. 4.
@ -201,16 +198,13 @@ regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-205-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_33] Malkki 1995.
[^stenum_34] European Data Protection Supervisor, “EDPS: Opinion on the First reform package on the Common European Asylum System (Eurodac, EASO and Dublin regulations)”, *Opinion 07/2016*, September 21, 2016. Available at: https://edps.europa.eu/
sites/edp/files/publication/16-09-21_ceas_opinion_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017], p. 18.
[^stenum_34] European Data Protection Supervisor, “EDPS: Opinion on the First reform package on the Common European Asylum System (Eurodac, EASO and Dublin regulations)”, *Opinion 07/2016*, September 21, 2016. Available at: https://edps.europa.eu/sites/edp/files/publication/16-09-21_ceas_opinion_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017], p. 18.
[^stenum_35] Cp. European Commission, “Towards a Reform of the Common European Asylum System and Enhancing Legal Avenues to Europe”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 197 final, April 6, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/proposal implementation package/docs/20160406/towards_a_reform_of
_the_common_european_asylum_system_and_enhancing_legal_avenues_to_europe_-_20160406_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_35] Cp. European Commission, “Towards a Reform of the Common European Asylum System and Enhancing Legal Avenues to Europe”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 197 final, April 6, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/proposalimplementationpackage/docs/20160406/towards_a_reform_of_the_common_european_asylum_system_and_enhancing_legal_avenues_to_europe_-_20160406_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_36] “The collection of facial images will be the pre-cursor to introducing facial recognition software in the future and will bring EURODAC in line with the other systems such as the Entry/Exit System. Eu-LISA should first conduct a study on facial recognition software that evaluates its accuracy and reliability prior to this software being added to the Central System”. European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 4f.
[^stenum_37] Cp. European Commission, “Smart borders – options and the way ahead”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2011) 680 final, October 25, 2011. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/
2011/EN/1-2011-680-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_37] Cp. European Commission, “Smart borders – options and the way ahead”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2011) 680 final, October 25, 2011. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2011/EN/1-2011-680-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_38] Cost-benefit is also calculated by the Commission regarding the entry/exit and Frequent Travellers system, predicting that member states “could have a net cost savings already after the second year of operation” stemming from reduction in border control resources by around 40% (equivalent to EUR 500 million/year). Development cost for the first three years and with some of the biometrics added later is estimated to around EUR 390 million, and yearly operational costs in a period of 5 years of operation is estimated to be 189 million EUR. In this 8 year span costs are estimated to be EUR 1,335 million). Cp. European Commission, COM(2011) 680 final.
@ -252,8 +246,7 @@ _the_common_european_asylum_system_and_enhancing_legal_avenues_to_europe_-_20160
[^stenum_57] SANS Institute presents itself as a cooperative research and education organization, providing computer security training and information security research.
[^stenum_58] SANS Institute, “Biometric Scanning Technologies: Finger, Facial and Retinal Scanning”, *SANS Institute. InfoSec Reading Room*, 2003. Available at: https://www.sans.org/
reading-room/whitepapers/authentication/biometric-scanning-technologies-finger-facial-retinal-scanning-1177 [accessed June 21, 2017].
[^stenum_58] SANS Institute, “Biometric Scanning Technologies: Finger, Facial and Retinal Scanning”, *SANS Institute. InfoSec Reading Room*, 2003. Available at: https://www.sans.org/reading-room/whitepapers/authentication/biometric-scanning-technologies-finger-facial-retinal-scanning-1177 [accessed June 21, 2017].
[^stenum_59] Pugliese 2010, p. 62.
@ -267,8 +260,7 @@ reading-room/whitepapers/authentication/biometric-scanning-technologies-finger-f
[^stenum_64] Rose 1999.
[^stenum_65] Helle Stenum, “Biometric citizenship and alienage: new and re-structuring technology of government of mobility?” Paper presented at the conference: Reconfiguring borders and mobility in times of crisis, September, 26-28, Danish Institute for International Studies, 2012. Available at: http://forskning.ruc.dk/site/da/publications/
biometric-citizenship-and-alienage(1c5b48bf-2510-412e-bf56-5164c4b4f89a).html [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_65] Helle Stenum, “Biometric citizenship and alienage: new and re-structuring technology of government of mobility?” Paper presented at the conference: Reconfiguring borders and mobility in times of crisis, September, 26-28, Danish Institute for International Studies, 2012. Available at: http://forskning.ruc.dk/site/da/publications/biometric-citizenship-and-alienage(1c5b48bf-2510-412e-bf56-5164c4b4f89a).html [accessed June 20, 2017].
[^stenum_66] Giorgio Agamben, “Bodies without words: Against the biopolitical tattoo”, *German Law Journal*, 5 (2), 2004, pp. 168–169.