From 4696148855b0c997e3acee6f9c2e015b227fc5e3 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: inga Date: Sat, 4 Jun 2022 08:36:53 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Update 'content/session/stenum.md' added italics --- content/session/stenum.md | 74 +++++++++++++++++++-------------------- 1 file changed, 37 insertions(+), 37 deletions(-) diff --git a/content/session/stenum.md b/content/session/stenum.md index e76e235..737cebb 100644 --- a/content/session/stenum.md +++ b/content/session/stenum.md @@ -132,66 +132,66 @@ While Agamben had the capacity to control his fingerprints being taken back in 2 ## References -[^stenum_1] Tech in Asia: According to 6Wresearch, Global Biometrics Market is projected to reach $ 21,9 billion by 2020. Cp. 6Wresearch, “Global Biometrics Market is Projected to Touch $21.9 Billion by 2020”, Linkedin, Mai 31, 2016. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/global-biometrics-market-projected-touch-219-billion-2020- [accessed June 27, 2017]. Another market research company projects Biometric System Market worth $ 32,73 Billion by 2022: “The biometric system market size is expected to increase from USD 10.74 Billion in 2015 to USD 32.73 Billion by 2022, at a CAGR of 16.79% between 2016 and 2022”. Markets and Markets, “Biometric System Market worth 32.73 Billion USD by 2022”, Press Releases, n.d. Available at: http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/biometric-technologies.asp [accessed November 30, 2016]. +[^stenum_1] Tech in Asia: According to 6Wresearch, Global Biometrics Market is projected to reach $ 21,9 billion by 2020. Cp. 6Wresearch, “Global Biometrics Market is Projected to Touch $21.9 Billion by 2020”, *Linkedin*, Mai 31, 2016. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/global-biometrics-market-projected-touch-219-billion-2020- [accessed June 27, 2017]. Another market research company projects Biometric System Market worth $ 32,73 Billion by 2022: “The biometric system market size is expected to increase from USD 10.74 Billion in 2015 to USD 32.73 Billion by 2022, at a CAGR of 16.79% between 2016 and 2022”. Markets and Markets, “Biometric System Market worth 32.73 Billion USD by 2022”, *Press Releases*, n.d. Available at: http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/biometric-technologies.asp [accessed November 30, 2016]. -[^stenum_2] Cp. Kartikay Mehrota, “Retailers Experiment With Surveillance Tools Used by Police”, Bloomberg Businessweek, March 3, 2016. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-03/retail-stores-experiment-with-surveillance-tools-used-by-police [accessed November 29, 2016]. +[^stenum_2] Cp. Kartikay Mehrota, “Retailers Experiment With Surveillance Tools Used by Police”, *Bloomberg Businessweek*, March 3, 2016. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-03/retail-stores-experiment-with-surveillance-tools-used-by-police [accessed November 29, 2016]. -[^stenum_3] Anti-citizen is someone portrayed as a risk to the wellbeing, virtue, norms and values of society – for example criminals and undocumented migrants. Cp. Jonathan Xavier Inda, Targeting immigrants: Government, technology, and ethics, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2005; Sharam Koshravi, The ‘Illegal’ traveller: an auto-ethnography of borders, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. +[^stenum_3] Anti-citizen is someone portrayed as a risk to the wellbeing, virtue, norms and values of society – for example criminals and undocumented migrants. Cp. Jonathan Xavier Inda, *Targeting immigrants: Government, technology, and ethics*, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2005; Sharam Koshravi, *The ‘Illegal’ traveller: an auto-ethnography of borders*, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. -[^stenum_4] Nikolas Rose, “Government and control”, British Journal of Criminology, 40, 2000, pp. 321–339; Nikolas Rose, Powers of freedom. Reframing political thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999. +[^stenum_4] Nikolas Rose, “Government and control”, *British Journal of Criminology*, 40, 2000, pp. 321–339; Nikolas Rose, *Powers of freedom. Reframing political thought*, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999. -[^stenum_5] Cp. Martin Ruhs, and Bridget Anderson, “Semi-compliance in the migrant labour market”, COMPAS Working Paper, 30, 2006. +[^stenum_5] Cp. Martin Ruhs, and Bridget Anderson, “Semi-compliance in the migrant labour market”, *COMPAS Working Paper*, 30, 2006. -[^stenum_6] Cp. Nicholas de Genova, “Migrant ‘Illegality’ and deportability in everyday life”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 2002, pp. 419–447; Nicholas de Genova, Working the boundaries: Race, space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago, Durham, Duke University Press Books, 2005. +[^stenum_6] Cp. Nicholas de Genova, “Migrant ‘Illegality’ and deportability in everyday life”, *Annual Review of Anthropology*, 31, 2002, pp. 419–447; Nicholas de Genova, *Working the boundaries: Race, space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago*, Durham, Duke University Press Books, 2005. -[^stenum_7] Cp. Dennis Broeders, “Return to sender? Administrative detention of irregular migrants in Germany and the Netherlands?”, Punishment & Society, 12 (2), 2010, pp. 169–186, here: p. 47; John Torpey, The invention of the passport surveillance, citizenship and the state, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 33. +[^stenum_7] Cp. Dennis Broeders, “Return to sender? Administrative detention of irregular migrants in Germany and the Netherlands?”, *Punishment & Society*, 12 (2), 2010, pp. 169–186, here: p. 47; John Torpey, *The invention of the passport surveillance, citizenship and the state*, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 33. -[^stenum_8] Kim Rygiel, “Bordering solidarities: Migrant activism and the politics of movement and camps at Calais”, Citizenship Studies, 15 (1), 2011, pp. 1–19. +[^stenum_8] Kim Rygiel, “Bordering solidarities: Migrant activism and the politics of movement and camps at Calais”, *Citizenship Studies*, 15 (1), 2011, pp. 1–19. -[^stenum_9] Liisa H. Malkki, “Refugees and exile: From ‘refugee studies’ to the national order of things”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 1995, pp. 495–523. +[^stenum_9] Liisa H. Malkki, “Refugees and exile: From ‘refugee studies’ to the national order of things”, *Annual Review of Anthropology*, 24, 1995, pp. 495–523. [^stenum_10] Broeders 2010. -[^stenum_11] Cp. European Commission, “on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of fingerprints for the effective application of [Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person], for identifying an illegally stayingthird-country national or stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes (recast)”, Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council, COM(2016), 272 final, May 4, 2016. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/ +[^stenum_11] Cp. European Commission, “on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of fingerprints for the effective application of [Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person], for identifying an illegally stayingthird-country national or stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes (recast)”, *Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council*, COM(2016), 272 final, May 4, 2016. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/ transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-272-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017]; “Eurodac is a computerised system consisting of a central unit, which operates the central database of biometric data, and of a communication infrastructure for transmitting the data between the Member States and the central unit. […] Member States are required to record the fingerprint data of all persons who are seeking asylum or who have been apprehended crossing the external border irregularly.” EPRS, “Recast EUrodac regulation”, October 2016, not accessible anymore. -[^stenum_12] Cp. Didier Bigo, Sergio Carrera, Ben Hayes, Nicholas Hernanz, and Julien Jeandesboz, “Justice and home affairs databases and a smart borders system at EU external borders. An evaluation of current and forthcoming proposals”, CEPS paper in Liberty and Security, 52, 2012. +[^stenum_12] Cp. Didier Bigo, Sergio Carrera, Ben Hayes, Nicholas Hernanz, and Julien Jeandesboz, “Justice and home affairs databases and a smart borders system at EU external borders. An evaluation of current and forthcoming proposals”, *CEPS paper in Liberty and Security*, 52, 2012. [^stenum_13] The term Biometrics covers a range of different physical and behavioural elements linked to the body: e.g. fingerprints, face recognition, iris scan, DNA, vein analysis, gait, and heart rhythm. -[^stenum_14] Based on the Prüm Convention: Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration. Cp. Auswärtiges Amt, “Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourgh, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration, Prüm/Eifel, 27 May 2005”, Auswärtiges Amt, 2015. Available at: http://www.auswaertiges amt.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/607270/publicationFile/ +[^stenum_14] Based on the Prüm Convention: Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration. Cp. Auswärtiges Amt, “Convention between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of Spain, the French Republic, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourgh, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Republic of Austria on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism, cross-border crime and illegal migration, Prüm/Eifel, 27 May 2005”, *Auswärtiges Amt*, 2015. Available at: http://www.auswaertiges amt.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/607270/publicationFile/ 165214/Statusliste-EN.pdf [accessed June 27, 2017]. -[^stenum_15] The Schengen Information System (SIS) is a large-scale information system that supports external border control and law enforcement cooperation in the Schengen States. The Visa Information System (VIS) allows Schengen States to exchange visa data. It consists of a central IT system and of a communication infrastructure that links this central system to national systems. Cp. European Commission, “Schengen Area”, Migration and Home Affairs, 2017. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen_en [accessed June 20, 2017]. +[^stenum_15] The Schengen Information System (SIS) is a large-scale information system that supports external border control and law enforcement cooperation in the Schengen States. The Visa Information System (VIS) allows Schengen States to exchange visa data. It consists of a central IT system and of a communication infrastructure that links this central system to national systems. Cp. European Commission, “Schengen Area”, *Migration and Home Affairs*, 2017. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/schengen_en [accessed June 20, 2017]. -[^stenum_16] Cp. European Commission, “Overview of information management in the area of freedom, security and justice”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 385 final, July 20, 2010. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2010/EN/1-2010-385-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017]. +[^stenum_16] Cp. European Commission, “Overview of information management in the area of freedom, security and justice”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2010) 385 final, July 20, 2010. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2010/EN/1-2010-385-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017]. -[^stenum_17] Cp. European Commission, “Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2016) 205 final, June 4, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/ +[^stenum_17] Cp. European Commission, “Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 205 final, June 4, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/ regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-205-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017]. [^stenum_18] Cp. European Commission, COM(2016) 205 final, p. 4. -[^stenum_19] Cp. Peter Nyers, Rethinking refugees. Beyond states of emergency, London/New York, Routledge, 2006. +[^stenum_19] Cp. Peter Nyers, *Rethinking refugees. Beyond states of emergency*, London/New York, Routledge, 2006. [^stenum_20] Cp. European Commission, COM(2016), 272 final. -[^stenum_21] Terms often used to describe development of databases containing personal information, here Wisman (2013): “The use of technology to perform a function it was not originally intended for constitutes function creep. […] The use of data for a different goal than it was collected for results in purpose creep.” Tijmen Wisman, “Purpose and function creep by design: Transforming the face of surveillance through the internet of things”, European Journal of Law and Technology, 4 (2), 2013. +[^stenum_21] Terms often used to describe development of databases containing personal information, here Wisman (2013): “The use of technology to perform a function it was not originally intended for constitutes function creep. […] The use of data for a different goal than it was collected for results in purpose creep.” Tijmen Wisman, “Purpose and function creep by design: Transforming the face of surveillance through the internet of things”, *European Journal of Law and Technology*, 4 (2), 2013. [^stenum_22] European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 2. -[^stenum_23] Cp. James C. Scott, Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1998; Helle Stenum, “Making migrants governable: counting and defining the ‘illegal migrant’”, Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 2 (4), 2012, pp. 280–288. +[^stenum_23] Cp. James C. Scott, *Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed*, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1998; Helle Stenum, “Making migrants governable: counting and defining the ‘illegal migrant’”, *Nordic Journal of Migration Research*, 2 (4), 2012, pp. 280–288. [^stenum_24] European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 3. [^stenum_25] Cp. Malkki 1995. -[^stenum_26] Sergio Carrera, and Nicholas Hernanz, “Re-framing mobility and identity controls: The next generation of the EU migration management”, Journal of Borderlands Studies, 30 (1), 2015, pp. 69–84, here: p. 71. +[^stenum_26] Sergio Carrera, and Nicholas Hernanz, “Re-framing mobility and identity controls: The next generation of the EU migration management”, *Journal of Borderlands Studies*, 30 (1), 2015, pp. 69–84, here: p. 71. [^stenum_27] Cp. European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final. [^stenum_28] European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 3. -[^stenum_29] Cp. Inda 2005; William Walters, “Reflections on migration and governmentality”, Movements. Journal für Kritische Migrations- und Grenzregimeforschung, 1 (1), 2015, pp. 1–25; Rose, Powers of freedom. Reframing political thought. +[^stenum_29] Cp. Inda 2005; William Walters, “Reflections on migration and governmentality”, *Movements. Journal für Kritische Migrations- und Grenzregimeforschung*, 1 (1), 2015, pp. 1–25; Rose, *Powers of freedom. Reframing political thought*. [^stenum_30] European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 14. @@ -201,63 +201,63 @@ regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-205-EN-F1-1.PDF [accessed June 20, 2017]. [^stenum_33] Malkki 1995. -[^stenum_34] European Data Protection Supervisor, “EDPS: Opinion on the First reform package on the Common European Asylum System (Eurodac, EASO and Dublin regulations)”, Opinion 07/2016, September 21, 2016. Available at: https://edps.europa.eu/ +[^stenum_34] European Data Protection Supervisor, “EDPS: Opinion on the First reform package on the Common European Asylum System (Eurodac, EASO and Dublin regulations)”, *Opinion 07/2016*, September 21, 2016. Available at: https://edps.europa.eu/ sites/edp/files/publication/16-09-21_ceas_opinion_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017], p. 18. -[^stenum_35] Cp. European Commission, “Towards a Reform of the Common European Asylum System and Enhancing Legal Avenues to Europe”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2016) 197 final, April 6, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/proposal implementation package/docs/20160406/towards_a_reform_of +[^stenum_35] Cp. European Commission, “Towards a Reform of the Common European Asylum System and Enhancing Legal Avenues to Europe”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2016) 197 final, April 6, 2016. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/proposal implementation package/docs/20160406/towards_a_reform_of _the_common_european_asylum_system_and_enhancing_legal_avenues_to_europe_-_20160406_en.pdf [accessed June 20, 2017]. [^stenum_36] “The collection of facial images will be the pre-cursor to introducing facial recognition software in the future and will bring EURODAC in line with the other systems such as the Entry/Exit System. Eu-LISA should first conduct a study on facial recognition software that evaluates its accuracy and reliability prior to this software being added to the Central System”. European Commission, COM(2016) 272 final, p. 4f. -[^stenum_37] Cp. European Commission, “Smart borders – options and the way ahead”, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2011) 680 final, October 25, 2011. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/ +[^stenum_37] Cp. European Commission, “Smart borders – options and the way ahead”, *Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council*, COM(2011) 680 final, October 25, 2011. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/ 2011/EN/1-2011-680-EN-F1-1.Pdf [accessed June 20, 2017]. [^stenum_38] Cost-benefit is also calculated by the Commission regarding the entry/exit and Frequent Travellers system, predicting that member states “could have a net cost savings already after the second year of operation” stemming from reduction in border control resources by around 40% (equivalent to EUR 500 million/year). Development cost for the first three years and with some of the biometrics added later is estimated to around EUR 390 million, and yearly operational costs in a period of 5 years of operation is estimated to be 189 million EUR. In this 8 year span costs are estimated to be EUR 1,335 million). Cp. European Commission, COM(2011) 680 final. -[^stenum_39] Marie Martin, “Extension of mobility partnerships with euro-mediterranean partners”, Panorama, 2012, pp. 279–283, here: p. 281. +[^stenum_39] Marie Martin, “Extension of mobility partnerships with euro-mediterranean partners”, *Panorama*, 2012, pp. 279–283, here: p. 281. -[^stenum_40] Cp. Walters 2015; Didier Bigo, “Freedom and speed in enlarged borderzones”, in: Vicki Squire (ed.), The contested politics of mobility: Borderzones and irregularity, Abingdon, Routledge, 2011, pp. 31–50. +[^stenum_40] Cp. Walters 2015; Didier Bigo, “Freedom and speed in enlarged borderzones”, in: Vicki Squire (ed.), *The contested politics of mobility: Borderzones and irregularity*, Abingdon, Routledge, 2011, pp. 31–50. -[^stenum_41] Cp. Zygmunt Bauman, Globalization, New York, Columbia University Press, 1998. +[^stenum_41] Cp. Zygmunt Bauman, *Globalization*, New York, Columbia University Press, 1998. -[^stenum_42] Cp. David Lyon (ed.), Surveillance as social sorting: Privacy, risk, and automated discrimination, London, Routledge, 2005. +[^stenum_42] Cp. David Lyon (ed.), *Surveillance as social sorting: Privacy, risk, and automated discrimination*, London, Routledge, 2005. [^stenum_43] Cp. Bigo et al. 2012. -[^stenum_44] “Alienage” as defined by Bosniak: “the position of the marginalized non-citizen or the degree of ‘alienage’ are produced by nation-states exercising sovereignty and ‘managing migration’, and framing conditions for mobility and residence of migrants. ‘Alienage entails the introjection of borders”. Linda Bosniak, The citizen and the alien, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2008, p. 5. +[^stenum_44] “Alienage” as defined by Bosniak: “the position of the marginalized non-citizen or the degree of ‘alienage’ are produced by nation-states exercising sovereignty and ‘managing migration’, and framing conditions for mobility and residence of migrants. ‘Alienage entails the introjection of borders”. Linda Bosniak, *The citizen and the alien*, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2008, p. 5. -[^stenum_45] See for example Frontex, “Smarter, Faster, Safer?”, Feautre Stories, 2011. Available at: http://frontex.europa.eu/feature-stories/smarter-faster-safer--KfKGq2 [accessed June 21, 2017]. +[^stenum_45] See for example Frontex, “Smarter, Faster, Safer?”, *Feature Stories*, 2011. Available at: http://frontex.europa.eu/feature-stories/smarter-faster-safer--KfKGq2 [accessed June 21, 2017]. -[^stenum_46] Cp. Mark Maguire, “The birth of biometric security”, Anthropology Today, 25, 2009, pp. 9–14; Louise Amoore, “Biometric borders: Governing mobilities in the war on terror”, Political Geography, 25, 2006, pp. 336–351. +[^stenum_46] Cp. Mark Maguire, “The birth of biometric security”, *Anthropology Today*, 25, 2009, pp. 9–14; Louise Amoore, “Biometric borders: Governing mobilities in the war on terror”, *Political Geography*, 25, 2006, pp. 336–351. [^stenum_47] Amoore 2006, p. 342. -[^stenum_48] Cp. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at large, Minneapolis/London, University of Minnesota Press, 1996. +[^stenum_48] Cp. Arjun Appadurai, *Modernity at large*, Minneapolis/London, University of Minnesota Press, 1996. [^stenum_49] Amoore 2006, p. 342. -[^stenum_50] Cp. Simon A. Cole, Suspect identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002. +[^stenum_50] Cp. Simon A. Cole, *Suspect identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification*, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2002. [^stenum_51] Cp. Cole 2002. -[^stenum_52] Cp. Cole 2002; John Torpey, The invention of the passport surveillance, citizenship and the state, Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000. +[^stenum_52] Cp. Cole 2002; John Torpey, *The invention of the passport surveillance, citizenship and the state*, Cambridge, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000. [^stenum_53] Rose 1999; 2000. [^stenum_54] Bigo 2011, p. 33. -[^stenum_55] Cp. Shoshana Amielle Magnet, When biometrics fail: Gender, race, and the technology of identity, Durham/London, Duke University Press, 2011; Joseph Pugliese, Biometrics: Bodies, technologies, biopolitics, London/New York, Routledge, 2010; Rygiel 2011; Irma van der Ploeg, “Biometrics and the body as information: Normative issues in the socio-technical coding of the body”, in: David Lyon (ed.), Surveillance as social sorting: Privacy, risk, and automated discrimination, London, Routledge, 2002, pp. 57–73; Btihaj Ajana, Governing through biometrics: The biopolitics of identity, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2013; Keith Breckenridge, Biometric State. The global politics of identification and surveillance in South Africa, 1850 to the Present, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014; and others. +[^stenum_55] Cp. Shoshana Amielle Magnet, *When biometrics fail: Gender, race, and the technology of identity*, Durham/London, Duke University Press, 2011; Joseph Pugliese, *Biometrics: Bodies, technologies, biopolitics*, London/New York, Routledge, 2010; Rygiel 2011; Irma van der Ploeg, “Biometrics and the body as information: Normative issues in the socio-technical coding of the body”, in: David Lyon (ed.), *Surveillance as social sorting: Privacy, risk, and automated discrimination*, London, Routledge, 2002, pp. 57–73; Btihaj Ajana, *Governing through biometrics: The biopolitics of identity*, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2013; Keith Breckenridge, *Biometric State. The global politics of identification and surveillance in South Africa, 1850 to the Present*, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014; and others. [^stenum_56] Magnet 2011, p. 50. [^stenum_57] SANS Institute presents itself as a cooperative research and education organization, providing computer security training and information security research. -[^stenum_58] SANS Institute, “Biometric Scanning Technologies: Finger, Facial and Retinal Scanning”, SANS Institute. InfoSec Reading Room, 2003. Available at: https://www.sans.org/ +[^stenum_58] SANS Institute, “Biometric Scanning Technologies: Finger, Facial and Retinal Scanning”, *SANS Institute. InfoSec Reading Room*, 2003. Available at: https://www.sans.org/ reading-room/whitepapers/authentication/biometric-scanning-technologies-finger-facial-retinal-scanning-1177 [accessed June 21, 2017]. [^stenum_59] Pugliese 2010, p. 62. -[^stenum_60] Richard Dyer, White: Essays on race and culture, London/New York, Routledge, 1997, p. 89. +[^stenum_60] Richard Dyer, *White: Essays on race and culture*, London/New York, Routledge, 1997, p. 89. [^stenum_61] Pugliese 2010, p. 114. @@ -270,6 +270,6 @@ reading-room/whitepapers/authentication/biometric-scanning-technologies-finger-f [^stenum_65] Helle Stenum, “Biometric citizenship and alienage: new and re-structuring technology of government of mobility?” Paper presented at the conference: Reconfiguring borders and mobility in times of crisis, September, 26-28, Danish Institute for International Studies, 2012. Available at: http://forskning.ruc.dk/site/da/publications/ biometric-citizenship-and-alienage(1c5b48bf-2510-412e-bf56-5164c4b4f89a).html [accessed June 20, 2017]. -[^stenum_66] Giorgio Agamben, “Bodies without words: Against the biopolitical tattoo”, German Law Journal, 5 (2), 2004, pp. 168–169. +[^stenum_66] Giorgio Agamben, “Bodies without words: Against the biopolitical tattoo”, *German Law Journal*, 5 (2), 2004, pp. 168–169. [^stenum_67] Agamben 2004, p. 169.